Peoples of Eastern Europe: composition, culture, history, languages. Non-Slavic peoples of European Russia

Linguists believe that the primitive tribes that settled Europe 10 - 12 thousand years ago spoke languages dating back to a relatively single language family, conventionally called Nostratic. However, as the tribes settled, linguistic alienation began to increase. From the Nostratic family, the Indo-European family of languages emerged, which included the ancestors of most of the peoples of Eastern Europe and the linguistically related peoples of Asia.

The differentiation of the Indo-European community turned out to be closely related to ethnic processes. Much remains unclear here. The fact is that the problems of the origin of peoples - ethnogenesis - are always among the most complex, rarely amenable to an unambiguous solution. The beginning of the formation of an ethnic community, as a rule, dates back to very distant eras of the primitive communal system. The researcher is almost deprived of the opportunity to judge the language spoken by the tribes that left archaeological monuments. Language is one of the most significant signs of an ethnic community. One should also keep in mind the numerous migrations of tribes and peoples and the processes of assimilation. When studying ethnogenetic problems, it is necessary to take into account data from a number of related scientific disciplines - archaeology, historical linguistics, anthropology, etc. There is practically no material that allows us to judge the linguistic and ethnic affiliation of the tribes of the Stone Age and partly the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. Evidence for the study of ethnogenesis in the Iron Age is somewhat more widely presented, however, even here there are more questions than scientifically based answers. Therefore, researchers prefer to talk about the existence of certain ethnic groups. It is also clear that the peoples inhabiting Russia do not have a single ancestor - the ethnocultural processes that took place in Eastern Europe were so complex and diverse.

What tribes and peoples lived on the territory of Russia in the 1st millennium BC?

In Eastern Europe, tribes were formed that spoke Finno-Ugric languages (the ancestors of modern Sami, Estonians, Komi, Udmurts, Mari and Mordovians). It is believed that these tribes settled in the Eastern Baltic already in the Neolithic, and in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. spread throughout the entire forest belt of the Volga region and the Volga-Oka interfluve (the Dyakovo, Gorodets, and Ananyevsk cultures of the early Iron Age are associated with the Finno-Ugric tribes). Later, in the areas of Finno-Ugric settlement, tribes began to appear that spoke Slavic and Baltic languages.

To the north of the territory occupied by the Utro-Finns and Balto-Slavs, as well as in Western Siberia and the Yenisei basin, the ancestors of the Nenets, Enets, Nganasans, Selkups, Khanty and Mansi settled. The ancestors of the Evenks, Lamuts, Udeges, Nanais, as well as the Chukchi, Eskimos, Koryaks, Itelmens, Aleuts and Nivkhs settled in Eastern Siberia and the Far East.

In the forest-steppe and southern taiga regions of Eastern Europe and the Trans-Urals lived tribes that belonged to the Iranian language group of Indo-Europeans (tribes of the Srubnaya culture). Ethnologists talk about the genetic connection between the tribes of the Srubnaya culture and the ancient Yamnaya Neolithic culture. Iranian languages were spoken by numerous tribes of Southern Siberia. To the south of Baikal lived the ancestors of the current Turkic-speaking and Mongol-speaking peoples, who later played a large role in the ethnic history of Siberia and Eastern Europe.

Let us dwell in some detail on the ethnic history of the Slavic peoples. In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. Peoples who spoke ancient European languages, dating back to the Indo-European group, penetrated into the European territory of the future Russia from Asia Minor. As they settled, large groups of tribes separated from them and settled on new lands. Thus, a huge territory - the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, a significant part of Central and Eastern Europe - was inhabited by tribes who spoke Balto-Slavic languages. The lands on which the ancestors of modern Slavs and Balts settled were limited in the west by the Dniester and Vistula rivers, in the east by the upper reaches of the Western Dvina and Oka.

Since these tribes constantly communicated with each other, their languages were very close. Dwellings, clothing, household utensils, and other objects of material culture were similar. Therefore, it has not yet been possible to establish exactly which archaeological monuments of the 2nd - 1st millennium BC. were left by the ancestors of the Slavs, and which ones were left by the ancestors of the Balts. In addition to hunting and fishing, they were engaged in forest cattle breeding and shifting agriculture.

Around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The Baltoslavs split into Baltic and Slavic tribes. An extremely important process for ethnogenesis was completed: the Slavs realized their ethnic independence, differentiated themselves culturally and linguistically from other, non-Slavic tribes. From now on, both the Slavic and Baltic tribes will have different historical destinies.

However, the Slavic community did not remain united. Soon it divided into three large groups: southern, western and eastern. The South Slavs settled in the Balkans. They became the ancestors of modern Bulgarians, Slovenes, Macedonians, Serbs and Croats. The Western Slavs, moving after the Germanic tribes, reached the banks of the Elbe, Main and Danube rivers; The history of the Czechs, Slovaks and Poles is connected with them. And only the eastern group remained in the territories occupied by the Slavs at the initial stage of development of European lands. The Eastern Slavs became the ancestors of the Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

The further formation of the ethnic map of our country turned out to be associated with the settlement of peoples, primarily the Eastern Slavs, who more intensively developed the expanses of Eastern Europe than other tribes. In addition, the ethnic picture in the 1st millennium AD. will be affected by the Great Migration.

One of the most important limitrophe zones on the planet - Eastern Europe, stretching in a wide strip from the Baltic to the Aegean Sea - is a single whole in geographical, historical, geopolitical terms, with all the relative diversity of ethnic groups, languages and religions in this space. This means that it is unthinkable and wrong to consider Slavic and non-Slavic countries and peoples of Eastern Europe in isolation from each other. At the same time, for more than half a century, in all universities of our Motherland, Slavic studies have been studied and taught in separate departments and within the framework of separate courses, while the history of Greece, Albania, Romania, and Hungary modestly huddles in general courses of foreign (European) history. As a result, students who have gone through such an education system do not develop a holistic picture of Eastern Europe.

There was a different approach in pre-revolutionary Russia. Although both early and late Slavophiles really paid the main attention to foreign Slavs, they never forgot about their foreign-language neighbors. We will not now dwell on the attention that in Russia of the 19th – early 20th centuries was given to Christians of the East (Georgians, Armenians, Arabs, Assyrians, Copts, Ethiopians), but will touch only on the peoples of Eastern Europe. Russian Slavophiles of various directions, as a rule, distinguished three categories among the Slavic peoples: Orthodox Slavs, Catholic Slavs (except Poles) and Poles. Their attitude towards non-Slavic peoples differed in a similar way.

Speaking about the Greeks, one should keep in mind, first of all, the chance that Russia missed in the first third of the 19th century. When the prominent Russian diplomat and patriot Ioannis Kapodistrias became the first president of independent Greece, St. Petersburg not only did not care about the stability of his power, but imposed on Greece, instead of organic Orthodox laws, a Western-style parliamentary constitution. Kapodistrias was soon killed, and Greece came under the influence of the Western powers. The Russian emperors did not abandon attempts to return her to the orbit of their influence, but even when Grand Duchess Olga Konstantinovna, a Russian patriot and pupil of the Slavophile general Kireyev, became the queen of the Hellenes, she found herself isolated in the political arena of Greece and could not seriously influence even her husband George I Glucksburg. By the end of the 19th century, against the backdrop of Greek distrust of Russia, anti-Greek sentiments grew among Russian thinkers and publicists. Only Konstantin Leontyev and Tertiy Filippov clearly gave preference to the Greeks over the Bulgarians and Serbs, but in general Russian Pan-Slavism acquired an increasingly pronounced anti-Greek orientation. They were more afraid of giving Constantinople to the Greeks than leaving it in the hands of the Turks. But even at this time, the voice of the largest Russian Slavic scholar Vladimir Lamansky, who created the doctrine of the unity of the Greco-Slavic “middle world” and the need for the closest cultural interaction between Russia and Greece, did not cease.

Hungary after 1848 and especially after 1867 had a well-deserved reputation as a cruel persecutor and oppressor of the Slavs and Romanians (in fairness, we note that after the defeat in the First World War, the position of the Hungarians themselves in Czechoslovakia and Romania will become incomparably worse - they will turn out to be the same powerless lower caste , deprived of basic human rights, as Russians in Latvia and Estonia are now). The quite sound position of Nikolai Danilevsky, according to which the Hungarians, along with the Romanians and Greeks, should “willingly or unwillingly” enter the Slavic federation, contributed to the fact that individual episodes of negotiations between Russian public figures and Hungarian politicians took place. Magyar stubbornness made itself felt, and yet certain shifts towards recognition of national rights for the Slavs and Romanians of Transleithania occurred. The Russians did not experience the same problems with the Hungarians as they did with the Austrian Poles.

During the 19th century, Romania always remained in the field of vision of the best Russian thinkers and statesmen, although now this has been thoroughly forgotten. Alexander I abandoned Moldavia and Wallachia just as recklessly as he abandoned Galicia and Bukovina, Serbia and Greece, but under Nicholas I the Danube principalities found themselves under the control of Count Kiselev. True, the Crimean War transferred Romania to the camp of the principled enemies of Russia and Greco-Slavic culture, and only Bessarabia (present-day Moldova), saved by Russia in 1812, retained its former identity and did not succumb to Romanization one iota even in the terrible years from 1918 to 1940 th.

The 20th century changed a lot in the destinies and self-awareness of the peoples of Eastern Europe. First of all, let us note the unique role of Romania - the only one of the two dozen Eastern European countries that has generated a large galaxy of world-class scientists, intellectuals, and writers in the past century. The legacy of Codreanu and Eliade entered the golden fund of all humanity. Since the unprecedented spiritual and cultural upsurge in Romania of the 20th century came almost entirely from Orthodoxy, this could help build a bridge between Russia and Romania. Unfortunately, the issue of Moldova and its identity is so fundamental that concessions on it are impossible, and this makes rapprochement with the Romanians extremely problematic.

But if Orthodox Romanians remain “strangers among their own” for Russians, then before our eyes a unique opportunity is opening up to see “our own among strangers” in the Catholic Hungarians. Hungary's challenge to the modern world - the world of tolerance, abortion, gay pride parades and private central banks - would deserve praise even if there were serious differences between Russians and Hungarians. But there are no such contradictions. Hungary’s territorial claim to the cities and villages of Transcarpathia inhabited by Magyars like Beregovo, which became part of the USSR in 1947, does not affect the interests of the Great Russians and Little Russians and may well be satisfied. The service that the Hungarian Jobbik party rendered to Russia quite recently, having achieved the exclusion of Tyagnibokov’s Svoboda from the alliance of European right-wing parties, is so great that it would be nice to thank the Hungarians. In conclusion, let us refer to the Italian politician, leader of Italian Eurasianism and great friend of Russia, Claudio Mutti, who in 2012 devoted an entire article to proving the inevitability of Hungary’s future as a member of the Eurasian Union (perhaps along with the European Union) and as an outpost of Russia in Eastern Europe. Perhaps Hungary can really share this role with Slovakia.

The people of Greece and Cyprus, pressed on both sides by the greedy European Union and Erdogan's neo-Ottoman project, are turning towards Russia and the planned Eurasian Union before our eyes. The recent triumphant trip of Alexander Dugin and his interview with Greek magazines is clear evidence of this. If we remember that the authoritative professor Dimitris Kitsikis rehabilitated Lamansky’s concept of the Greco-Slavic “middle world” at a new level, then the prospect of Greece and Cyprus turning towards Russia becomes quite realistic.

Finally, Russians should abandon stereotypical ideas about Albania. Today, the admiration for the European Union and the United States in this country (unlike Kosovo) is no more than in Serbia, Montenegro or Bulgaria, but the attitude towards Russians is even warmer. The impact of half a century of the Stalinist regime, when all Albanians learned Russian, unlike the Yugoslavs; but the real absence of contradictions between our peoples also affects this. Thus, Albania - especially after the restoration of justice in Kosovo - may well become an additional support for Russia in Eastern Europe.

A similar reassessment of the roles of “us” and “strangers” can, of course, be made in relation to the Slavs. Perhaps Russians do not always realize that Poles and Croats, Czechs and Serbs are no longer the same as we knew them in tsarist or Soviet times. But this is a topic for another discussion.

Settlement and ethnolinguistic affiliation. The territories occupied by non-Slavic peoples in the European part of Russia are mainly located in the eastern and northwestern parts of the region. With rare exceptions, at present they do not form monoethnic areas anywhere, living in stripes. Moreover, the majority of the rural population in these areas is non-Slavic, while Russians predominate among urban residents.

The non-Slavic population of the European part of Russia, excluding later settlers, according to linguistic classification belongs to two language families: Altai and Ural-Yukaghir.

Representatives of the Altai family are concentrated in the regions of the Middle and Lower Volga region, as well as the Urals. The only people belonging to the Mongolian branch of this family are the Kalmyks, who first appeared in the Lower Volga region in the 30s. XVII century from Dzungaria, one of the regions located in the north-west of Central Asia. The Turkic branch of the Altai language family includes the Tatars, Bashkirs, Chuvashs, Kryashens and Nagaibaks. Tatars, Kryashens and Nagaibaks speak different dialects of the Tatar language. The languages of the Tatars and Bashkirs belong to the Kipchak subgroup of Turkic languages, and Chuvash belongs to the Bulgarian.

The peoples of the Ural-Yukaghir language family live both in the Middle Volga and Urals regions, and in the north-west of the European part of the country. The extreme northeast of Eastern Europe is occupied by the Nenets, a people whose ethnic territory also includes the northern regions of Siberia from the Urals to the Taimyr Peninsula. The Nenets speak the Nenets language of the Samoyed group of the Ural-Yukaghir language family.

The remaining peoples of the Ural-Yukaghir language family living in the European part of Russia belong to the Finnish group of the Finno-Ugric branch. In the Urals and Kama region live ethnic groups who speak the languages of the Permian (Finno-Permian) subgroup. The Komi-Zyryan language is native to two peoples - the Komi-Zyryans and the Komi-Izhemtsev. Most Komi-Permyaks speak the Komi-Permyak language. Only a small ethnographic group of them - the Komi-Yazvinians, living separately in the northeast of the Perm Territory, has formed an independent language. The southernmost people of the Perm (Finno-Perm) subgroup are the Udmurts, living in the interfluve of the river. Vyatka and Kama. Besermyans settled in the north-west of Udmurtia, speaking one of the dialects of the Udmurt language.

In the Middle Volga region live two peoples of the Volga-Finnish subgroup of the Finnish group. These include the Mari, most of whom speak the Meadow (Meadow-Eastern) Mari language, and the western group, occupying mainly the right bank of the Volga, speaks the Mountain Mari language. The Mordovians also developed two independent languages: Moksha and Erzya.

In the north-west of the European part of Russia live ethnic groups who speak the Baltic-Finnish languages of the Finnish group: Ingrian Finns, Vods, Izhoras, Setos, Vepsians, Karelians. The Karelian language is represented by three significantly different dialects - Karelian proper, Livvik and Ludik, which are more correctly considered independent languages. The Setos speak a dialect of the Estonian language. A special position within the Baltic-Finnish subgroup is occupied by the Sami language, which contains about a third of the original Dauphinian vocabulary.

Among other non-Slavic ethnic groups that began to actively settle in the European part of Russia since the 18th century, the most significant in number are Germans, Jews and Gypsies. For Germans and Jews, the native languages are the Germanic group of the Indo-European language family - German and Yiddish, although the majority uses Russian in everyday life. The Romani language belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages.

Among Eastern European gypsies, Russian-Roma (Northern Russian), Lovar (Carpatho-Gypsy) and Kotlyar (Kelderar) dialects of this language are common.

According to the 2010 All-Russian Population Census, the Tatars are the largest ethnic group in Russia after the Russians. Out of a total population of 5.3 million people. 2 million people live in the Republic of Tatarstan, and about 1 million people live in the Republic of Bashkortostan. and more than 1.2 million people. in other regions and republics of the Volga and Urals regions. The second largest Turkic people are the Bashkirs - 1.6 million people. They make up a significant part of the population of Bashkortostan - about 1.2 million people. The number of Chuvash exceeds 1.4 million people. More than half of them – over 0.8 million people. concentrated within the Chuvash Republic. 30 thousand Kryashsn out of a total number of 35 thousand people. are residents of the Republic of Tatarstan. Of the 8.1 thousand Nagaibaks, about 7.7 thousand people. live in the Chelyabinsk region. The overwhelming majority of Kalmyks are 163 thousand out of 183 thousand people. – are residents of the Republic of Kalmykia.

The Komi-Zyrians are predominantly settled in the Komi Republic. More than 202 thousand Komi-Zyryans are recorded here out of a total population of 228 thousand people. The majority of Komi-Izhma residents also live here - 13 thousand out of 16 thousand people. The number of Komi-Permyaks is 94 thousand people, of which 81 thousand people. – population of the Perm region. Of the 552 thousand Udmurts, 411 thousand people. - residents of the republic of the same name. Significant groups of the Udmurt population are also settled in neighboring regions. The total number of Mari reaches 548 thousand people, of which more than half are 291 thousand people. concentrated within the Republic of Mari El. Mordovians are the largest Finnish-speaking people in the Russian Federation, numbering 744 thousand people. Less than half of all Mordovians live in the Republic of Mordovia - 333 thousand people.

Of the Baltic-Finnish ethnic groups, the largest in number are the Karelians - about 61 thousand people. Most of them are about 46 thousand people. – lives in the Republic of Karelia. Of the 20.3 thousand Ingrian Finns, 8.6 thousand people are concentrated in Karelia, 6.9 thousand people are concentrated in the Leningrad region and St. Petersburg. The Vepsian population is more than 5.9 thousand people, of which over 3.4 thousand are residents of Karelia, about 1.4 thousand people. lives in the Leningrad region. The Setos mainly live in the Pskov region (123 out of 214 people). Of the 266 Izhorians, 206 people were recorded in the Leningrad region and St. Petersburg. Total 64 people. called themselves Vodya, 59 of them were residents of the Leningrad region and St. Petersburg. The Sami are the indigenous population of the Kola Peninsula. 1.6 thousand Sami live in the Murmansk region out of a total population of 1.8 thousand people.

The German population of the Russian Federation is 394 thousand people, but in the European part of the country its number is smaller than in Siberia. The number of Jews in Russia is 157 thousand people. About half of the Jewish population are residents of the two largest cities - Moscow (53 thousand people) and St. Petersburg (24 thousand people). The Roma population of Russia is 205 thousand people, with a third of them (about 69 thousand people) living in four southern regions of the country: Stavropol, Krasnodar territories, Rostov and Volgograd regions.

Anthropologically, the non-Slavic peoples of the European part of Russia belong to both the Caucasoid and Mongoloid great races. Some groups of ethnic groups of the Finnish group of the Finno-Ugric branch of the Ural-Yukaghir language family, living mainly in the eastern and northern regions of the European part of Russia, have signs of the Mongoloid race, which distinguishes them into special transitional subarctic (according to V.V. Bunak) and Uralic races . The Sami belong to the subarctic race. Among the Finnish-speaking ethnic groups of the Urals and Volga region, there are widespread groups belonging to the Sub-Ural type of the Ural race (Komi-Zyryans, Komi-Izhemtsy, Komi-Permyaks, Udmurts, Mari, Mordovians-Moksha).

The Mordva-Erzya, northern and western groups of Komi-Zyryans, Baltic-Finnish ethnic groups (Ingrian Finns, Vods, Izhorians, Karelians and Vepsians) are more Caucasoid, having only a slight Mongoloid admixture and belong to the White Sea-Baltic small race, within which the East Baltic and White Sea types. Among them, the most common is the East Baltic type, and the White Sea type is characteristic of the northern groups of Karelians, Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Izhemtsy.

The complexity of the formation of the Turkic-speaking peoples of the European part of the country was reflected in their anthropological appearance. Most of the Chuvash, Tatars, Kryashens, Nagaibaks, and northwestern groups of Bashkirs belong to the Subural type of the Ural race. The south-eastern groups of Bashkirs are dominated by the features of the South Siberian race. The Astrakhan Tatars living in the Lower Volga region belong to the same race. Typical Mongoloid representatives of the Central Asian race are the Kalmyks.

Gypsies belong to the North Indian type of the Indopamirian small race of a large Caucasian family. Most Jews belong to the Armenoid (pre-Asian) race. But as a result of mixing with other Caucasians, among them there are representatives of various variants of the large Caucasian race.

Among the non-Slavic peoples of the European part of Russia there are adherents of different faiths. The only ethnic group for which the traditional religion is Buddhism in the form of Lamaism are the Kalmyks. The Bashkirs, as well as most of the Tatars, adhere to the Sunni branch of Islam. The national religion of Jews is Judaism. Christianity is represented by all three major denominations. Ingrian Finns are Lutherans. Among the Germans there are both Lutherans and Catholics. The majority of ethnic communities in the region are considered Orthodox. Among them, the Old Believers stand out, which includes part of the Karelians, Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks. Some Mari retain pagan beliefs. Elements of paganism can be traced to varying degrees in most ethnic groups professing Orthodoxy, but they are most pronounced among the Sami, Udmurts and Chuvash.

The countries of Eastern Europe are a natural territorial area located between the Baltic, Black and Adriatic Seas. The bulk of the population of Eastern Europe are Slavs and Greeks, and in the western part of the continent Romance and Germanic peoples predominate.

Eastern European countries

Eastern Europe is a historical and geographical region that includes the following countries (according to United Nations classification):

Poland.
Czech Republic.
Slovakia.
Hungary.
Romania.
Bulgaria.
Belarus.
Russia.
Ukraine.
Moldova.

The history of the formation and development of Eastern European states is a long and difficult path. The formation of the region began in prehistoric times. In the first millennium AD, there was an active settlement of Eastern Europe by people. Subsequently, the first states were formed.

The peoples of Eastern Europe have a very complex ethnic composition. It was this fact that became the reason that conflicts on ethnic grounds often occurred in these countries. Today, Slavic peoples occupy a predominant place in the region. Read more about how the statehood, population and culture of Eastern Europe were formed.

First peoples in Eastern Europe (BC)

The Cimmerians are considered to be the very first peoples of Eastern Europe. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus says that the Cimmerians lived in the first and second millennium BC. The Cimmerians settled primarily in the Azov region. Evidence of this is the characteristic names (Cimmerian Bosporus, Cimmerian crossings, Cimmeria region). The graves of the Cimmerians who died in clashes with the Scythians on the Dniester were also discovered.

In the 8th century BC there were many Greek colonies in Eastern Europe. The following cities were founded: Chersonesos, Feodosia, Phanagoria and others. Basically all the cities were trading cities. In the Black Sea settlements, spiritual and material culture was quite well developed. Archaeologists to this day find evidence confirming this fact.

The next people inhabiting eastern Europe in the prehistoric period were the Scythians. We know about them from the works of Herodotus. They lived on the northern coast of the Black Sea. In the 7th-5th centuries BC, the Scythians spread to the Kuban, Don, and appeared in Taman. The Scythians were engaged in cattle breeding, agriculture, and crafts. All these areas were developed among them. They traded with the Greek colonies.

In the 2nd century BC, the Sarmatians made their way to the land of the Scythians, defeated the former and settled the territory of the Black Sea and Caspian regions.

During the same period, the Goths, Germanic tribes, appeared in the Black Sea steppes. For a long time they oppressed the Scythians, but only in the 4th century AD they managed to completely oust them from these territories. Their leader, Germanarich, then occupied almost all of Eastern Europe.

Peoples of Eastern Europe in antiquity and the Middle Ages

The kingdom of the Goths did not last long. Their place was taken by the Huns, a people from the Mongolian steppes. From the 4th-5th centuries they waged their wars, but in the end their union fell apart, some remained in the Black Sea region, others went east.

In the 6th century, the Avars appeared; they, like the Huns, came from Asia. Their state was located where the Hungarian Plain is now. Until the beginning of the 9th century, the Avar state existed. The Avars often clashed with the Slavs, as evidenced by the Tale of Bygone Years, and attacked Byzantium and Western Europe. As a result, they were defeated by the Franks.

In the seventh century, the Khazar state was formed. The North Caucasus, Lower and Middle Volga, Crimea, and the Azov region were in the power of the Khazars. Belenjer, Semender, Itil, Tamatarkha are the largest cities of the Khazar state. In economic activity, the emphasis was placed on the use of trade routes that passed through the territory of the state. They were also involved in the slave trade.

In the 7th century, the state of Volga Bulgaria appeared. It was inhabited by Bulgars and Finno-Ugrians. In 1236, the Bulgars were attacked by the Mongol-Tatars, and in the process of assimilation, these peoples began to disappear.

In the 9th century, the Pechenegs appeared between the Dnieper and Don, they fought with the Khazars and Russia. Prince Igor went with the Pechenegs against Byzantium, but then a conflict occurred between the peoples, which developed into long wars. In 1019 and 1036, Yaroslav the Wise struck blows at the Pecheneg people, and they became vassals of Rus'.

In the 11th century, the Polovtsians came from Kazakhstan. They raided trade caravans. By the middle of the next century, their possessions extended from the Dnieper to the Volga. Both Rus' and Byzantium took them into account. Vladimir Monomakh inflicted a crushing defeat on them, after which they retreated to the Volga, beyond the Urals and Transcaucasia.

Slavic peoples

The first mentions of the Slavs appear around the first millennium AD. A more accurate description of these peoples occurs in the middle of the same millennium. At this time they were called Slovenians. Byzantine authors talk about the Slavs on the Balkan Peninsula and in the Danube region.

Depending on the territory of residence, the Slavs were divided into Western, Eastern and Southern. Thus, the Southern Slavs settled in the southeast of Europe, the Western Slavs - in Central and Eastern Europe, the Eastern Slavs - directly in Eastern Europe.

It was in Eastern Europe that the Slavs assimilated with the Finno-Ugric tribes. The Slavs of Eastern Europe were the largest group. The eastern ones were initially divided into tribes: Polyans, Drevlyans, Northerners, Dregovichi, Polochans, Krivichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Ilmen Slovenes, Buzhans.

Today, the East Slavic peoples include Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians. The Western Slavs include Poles, Czechs, Slovaks and others. The South Slavs include Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Macedonians and so on.

Modern population of Eastern Europe

The ethnic composition is heterogeneous. We will consider further which nationalities predominate there and which are in the minority. 95% of ethnic Czechs live in the Czech Republic. In Poland - 97% are Poles, the rest are Gypsies, Germans, Ukrainians, Belarusians.

Slovakia is a small but multinational country. Ten percent of the population are Hungarians, 2% are Gypsies, 0.8% are Czechs, 0.6% are Russians and Ukrainians, 1.4% are representatives of other nationalities. 92 percent consists of Hungarians or, as they are also called, Magyars. The rest are Germans, Jews, Romanians, Slovaks and so on.

Romanians make up 89%, followed by Hungarians - 6.5%. The peoples of Romania also include Ukrainians, Germans, Turks, Serbs and others. Among the population of Bulgaria, Bulgarians are in first place - 85.4%, and Turks are in second place - 8.9%.

In Ukraine, 77% of the population are Ukrainians, 17% are Russians. The ethnic composition of the population is represented by large groups of Belarusians, Moldovans, Crimean Tatars, Bulgarians, and Hungarians. In Moldova, the main population is Moldovans, with Ukrainians in second place.

The most multinational countries

The most multinational among the countries of Eastern Europe is Russia. More than one hundred and eighty nationalities live here. Russians come first. In each region there is an indigenous population of Russia, for example, the Chukchi, Koryaks, Tungus, Daurs, Nanais, Eskimos, Aleuts and others.

More than one hundred and thirty nations live on the territory of Belarus. The majority (83%) are Belarusians, followed by Russians - 8.3%. Gypsies, Azerbaijanis, Tatars, Moldovans, Germans, Chinese, and Uzbeks are also among the ethnic composition of the population of this country.

How did Eastern Europe develop?

Archaeological research in Eastern Europe provides a picture of the gradual development of this region. Archaeological finds indicate the presence of people here since ancient times. The tribes inhabiting this area cultivated their lands by hand. During excavations, scientists found ears of various cereals. They were engaged in both cattle breeding and fishing.

Culture: Poland, Czech Republic

Each state has its own peoples. Eastern Europe is diverse. Polish roots go back to the culture of the ancient Slavs, but Western European traditions also had a great influence on it. In the field of literature, Poland was glorified by Adam Mickiewicz and Stanislaw Lemm. The population of Poland is mostly Catholic, their culture and traditions are inextricably linked with the canons of religion.

The Czech Republic has always maintained its originality. Architecture ranks first in the cultural sphere. There are many palace squares, castles, fortresses, and historical monuments. Literature in the Czech Republic began to develop only in the nineteenth century. Czech poetry was “founded” by K.G. Maha.

Painting, sculpture and architecture in the Czech Republic have a long history. Mikolas Ales, Alphonse Mucha are the most famous representatives of this trend. There are many museums and galleries in the Czech Republic, among them unique ones are the Museum of Torture, the National Museum, and the Jewish Museum. The richness of cultures, their similarities - all this matters when it comes to friendship between neighboring states.

Culture of Slovakia and Hungary

In Slovakia, all celebrations are inextricably linked with nature. National holidays of Slovakia: the holiday of the Three Kings, similar to Maslenitsa - the removal of Madder, the holiday of Lucia. Each region of Slovakia has its own folk customs. Wood carving, painting, weaving are the main activities in rural areas in this country.

Music and dance are at the forefront of Hungarian culture. Music and theater festivals often take place here. Another distinctive feature is the Hungarian baths. The architecture is dominated by Romanesque, Gothic and Baroque styles. Hungarian culture is characterized by folk crafts in the form of embroidered items, wood and bone items, and wall panels. Cultural, historical and natural monuments of world significance are located everywhere in Hungary. In terms of culture and language, neighboring nations were influenced by Hungary: Ukraine, Slovakia, Moldova.

Romanian and Bulgarian culture

Romanians are mostly Orthodox. This country is considered to be the homeland of European gypsies, which has left its mark on the culture.

Bulgarians and Romanians are Orthodox Christians, so their cultural traditions are similar to other Eastern European peoples. The most ancient occupation of the Bulgarian people is winemaking. The architecture of Bulgaria was influenced by Byzantium, especially in religious buildings.

Culture of Belarus, Russia and Moldova

The culture of Belarus and Russia was largely influenced by Orthodoxy. St. Sophia Cathedral and Boris and Gleb Monastery appeared. Decorative and applied arts are widely developed here. Jewelry, pottery and foundry are common in all parts of the state. In the 13th century, chronicles appeared here.

The culture of Moldova developed under the influence of the Roman and Ottoman empires. The proximity in origin with the peoples of Romania and the Russian Empire had its significance.

Russian culture occupies a huge layer of Eastern European traditions. It is represented very widely in literature, art, and architecture.

The connection between culture and history

The culture of Eastern Europe is inextricably linked with the history of the peoples of Eastern Europe. This is a symbiosis of various foundations and traditions, which at different times influenced cultural life and its development. The trends in the culture of Eastern Europe largely depended on the religion of the population. Here it was Orthodoxy and Catholicism.

Languages of the peoples of Europe

The languages of the peoples of Europe belong to three main groups: Romance, Germanic, Slavic. The Slavic group includes thirteen modern languages, several minor languages and dialects. They are the main ones in Eastern Europe.

Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian are included in the Eastern Slavic group. The main dialects of the Russian language: northern, central and southern.

In Ukrainian there are Carpathian dialects, southwestern and southeastern. The language was influenced by the long proximity of Hungary and Ukraine. The Belarusian language contains a southwestern dialect and a Minsk dialect. The West Slavic group includes Polish and Czechoslovak dialects.

Several subgroups are distinguished in the South Slavic group of languages. So, there is an eastern subgroup with Bulgarian and Macedonian. Slovenian also belongs to the Western subgroup.

The official language in Moldova is Romanian. The Moldovan language and Romanian are, in fact, the same language of neighboring countries. That is why it is considered state. The only difference is that the Romanian language borrows more from Russia, while the Moldovan language borrows more from Russia.

No matter how significant the Old Russian state was in size, it occupied only part of the forest zone in the northern part of Eastern Europe. In the north and north-west, it was bordered by many Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes, who were more or less dependent on the Kyiv princes. The introductory part of “The Tale of Bygone Years” provides a list of such tribes “who give tribute to Rus'.”

A number of such tribes occupied the southern part of the Baltic. These are Lithuania, the tribes of the Curonians who lived along the Baltic coast south of the Gulf of Riga, the Livs - along the lower reaches of the Western Dvina and the coast of the Baltic Sea. Closer to the Russian lands, in the basin of the Western Dvina there were tribes of the Semigallians and to the north of them the Latgalians. To the north of these Baltic tribes were the Finno-Ugric tribes of the Estonians, designated in Russian chronicles by the name “Chud”. In the list of tribes bordering the Russian land from the west, the “Em” tribe is also mentioned - to the west and north of Lake Onega. Data on social relations among these tribes, dating back to the first decades of the 13th century, allow us to characterize them as pre-state formations, in which there already existed a prosperous tribal elite that stood out from the rest of the population and fortified settlements appeared, but there was no professional military force and the institution of princely power . These societies knew only leaders who were elected during the war. There were no large political associations here.

The situation has been different since the last decades of the 12th century. took shape in Lithuania. From that time on, neighboring Russian lands began to be subject to raids by Lithuanian squads, by the end of the second decade of the 13th century. Along with the princes of individual lands (Zemaitija, Devoltva), there were already “senior” princes who stood at the head of all of Lithuania.

Our sources, from which we can obtain information about these tribes, contain mainly information about their relationships with the Old Russian state. In general, the ancient Russian princes were content with collecting tribute from these tribes without interfering in their internal life. But even at the same time, the degree of dependence of these tribes on the Old Russian state, and then on individual Old Russian principalities, was different. In the southern Baltic region - the zone of influence of the Polotsk land - the dependence of Lithuania was most fragile; tribute was collected from it irregularly, and from the second half of the 12th century. she stopped coming altogether. The dependence of the Baltic population in the Western Dvina basin was stronger, where the strongholds of Polotsk's influence were founded - the fortresses of Kukenois and Gertsike. The rather close subordination of the Livs and Latgalians to the power of Polotsk is indicated by the appearance in their language of the word pagast (from Old Russian “pogost”) to designate a tribute collection point.

In the northern part of the Baltic states, in the zone of political influence of Novgorod, the Estonian tribes persistently resisted attempts to subjugate them to the authority of the Novgorod state. In order to achieve payment of tribute, the Novgorod princes constantly had to undertake military campaigns against these lands. Sometimes the Estonian tribes managed to unite for joint action in response. So, in 1176, “the entire Peipus land” came on a campaign to Pskov.

However, Novgorod did not have similar relations with all Finno-Ugric tribes that were in the sphere of influence of the Novgorod state. In particular, Novgorod had allied relations with such tribes on its western borders as the Izhora, Vod, and Karela. On the pages of the Novgorod chronicles of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries. these tribes do not act as objects of campaigns of the Novgorod army. On the contrary, the “Karela” together with him repeatedly participated in military campaigns not only against their western neighbors, but also against the Rostov princes, and the Izherians and Vozhans - in the army of Alexander Nevsky in the war with the German crusaders. The rapprochement with Novgorod led to the spread of Christianity among these tribes. Thus, in 1227, “Karela”, “not all people,” were baptized.

In the Russian North, on the lands lying to the north and northeast of Novgorod, tributaries of Rus' were, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, “Zavolochskaya Chud”, “Perm” and “Pechera”. The Zavolochskaya Chud was the name given to the Finno-Ugric population of the Northern Dvina basin. The term “Perm” denoted a whole group of Finno-Ugric tribes, the ancestors of such peoples as the Komi-Permyaks, Komi-Zyryans and Udmurts. The term “Pechora” apparently referred to part of the Komi-Zyryans who inhabited the Pechora River basin. If the Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes of the Baltics, like the Eastern Slavs, had agriculture as their main occupation, then in the economy of the population of the North, hunting, fishing and crafts were no less, and perhaps even more important, which was associated with rather unfavorable conditions for farming under natural conditions. The ancestors of the Komi-Zyryans, who lived in the Vym River basin, were hunters and cattle breeders, the ancestors of the Komi-Permyaks, who inhabited the upper reaches of the Kama, were engaged in shifting agriculture, hunting and fishing, and only the Udmurts had agriculture as their main occupation. About the social structure of these tribes in the XII-XIII centuries. no definite evidence from written sources has survived, but it is obvious that even rudimentary forms of state organization did not exist among them at that time. The remains of fortified settlements discovered by archaeologists - fortified settlements, burials, which differ from others in richer grave goods, indicate that here, too, the process of social differentiation of the population began.

The fate of these population groups of the Russian North in the XII-XII centuries. turned out to be different. The territory of the “Zavolochskaya miracle” was included in the Novgorod state relatively early. In the 30s XII century Along the Northern Dvina and its tributaries there was already a network of Novgorod churchyards, reaching the very confluence of the river into the White Sea, on the coast of which salt was boiled from sea water. At the same time, Slavic colonization coming from Novgorod was directed to these lands. The soils of the Novgorod land were particularly low in fertility, and the multiplying population had to constantly look for new territories for their food. The small local population mixed with the newcomers, gradually adopting their language and customs. In the 13th century Christian churches were already being built in graveyards, where liturgical books were sent from Novgorod. However, even in the 13th century. there were still large groups of the Finno-Ugric population who had not accepted Christianity - in the “Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land,” a monument written in the Rostov land immediately after the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the “filthy Toymichi” who lived north of Ustyug in the upper reaches are mentioned Northern Dvina. As for the “Perm” and “Pechora”, relations with them were the same as with the Baltic tribes, with the difference that tribute was collected from the furs of expensive fur-bearing animals (primarily sable). To collect tribute, “tributers” were sent with military detachments. Such trips did not always end successfully. Under 1187, the Novgorod I Chronicle noted that the “Pechersk tributaries” were killed on Pechora.

To the east of Perm and Pechora in the Trans-Urals and lower reaches of the Ob River was Yugra - the tribes of the Ob Ugrians, Khanty and Mansi - relatives of the Hungarians who moved to Central Europe, hunters and fishermen. At the beginning of the 12th century. Novgorod warriors who went to Pechora to collect tribute knew that further to the east lay Ugra, which at that time did not belong to the tributaries of Rus'. But already under 1187, the Novgorod I Chronicle mentions “Ugra tributaries.” Collecting tribute in Ugra was difficult and dangerous. In 1193, the entire Novgorod army sent there to collect tribute died here. The story about the events of 1193 mentions “grads”, their fortified settlements, which were besieged by the Novgorodians. And much later, an entire army had to be sent to Ugra to collect tribute. In 1445, such an army again suffered serious losses from local residents.

In the “midnight countries” adjacent to Ugra were the “Samoyad” - tribes of Nenets reindeer herders. At the beginning of the 12th century. In Novgorod, a legend clearly dating back to their folklore was known about a wonderful place in which young squirrels and deer descend from the sky. But these tribes did not enter the zone of Novgorod influence at that time. The fate of another group of the population of the Far North - the Sami reindeer herders (Lapps from Russian sources) - turned out to be different. Already in the first decades of the 13th century. Novgorod tribute extended to the Sami who lived on the western and southern coasts of the Kola Peninsula (“Tersky coast”, “Tre volost” from Novgorod sources). In 1216, the death of a “Terek tributary” was mentioned in the Battle of Lipitsa. Here, while moving west, Novgorod tribute collectors encountered tribute collectors from Norway. In 1251, the Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky entered into an agreement with the Norwegian king Hakon, which established the borders of both states in the area. On that part of the land inhabited by the Sami, which was located in the area of these borders, collectors coming from both Novgorod and Norway could simultaneously collect tribute.

On the territory of North-Eastern Rus', “merya”, “all” and “muroma” are mentioned as its tributaries in the introductory part of the “Tale of Bygone Years”. The mention of the first two ethnonyms is surprising, since both “merya” and “all” were very early part of the Old Russian state. On the land of "Mary" the main administrative center of the region was established - Rostov, and later - another large center - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. The territory occupied by this branch of the Finno-Ugric began to be populated very early by Eastern Slavs coming from the north-west and then from the south. Back in the second half of the 11th century. Rostov Bishop Leonty learned the “Meryan language” in order to preach Christianity among the local population, but later references to him are not found in sources, which indicates a fairly rapid assimilation of this Finno-Ugric ethnic group by the Eastern Slavs.

“All” (the ancestors of the Finno-Ugric people of the Vepsians) also became part of the Old Russian state quite early. Already in the 10th century. The center of princely power here became Beloozero, founded where the Sheksna River flows from White Lake. In the 70s XI century Along Sheksna there were already graveyards in which tribute was collected in favor of the prince. The East Slavic population also gradually penetrated into this region, but “all” for a long time continued to preserve their special language and customs. Early it became part of the Old Russian state and “Murom”, about which, apart from the name, practically nothing is known. Muroma lived around the city of Murom on the Oka River. In Murom already at the beginning of the 11th century. Vladimir Svyatoslavich's son Gleb was sitting.

The “Cheremis” and “Mordovians” are also mentioned as tributaries of Rus' in the “Tale of Bygone Years”. The term “Cheremis” in ancient Russian sources refers to the ancestors of the Mari, the Finno-Ugric people who inhabited the Middle Volga region on both sides of the Volga (“mountain Cheremis” on the right bank of the Volga and “meadow” on the left bank). The Mari were mainly pastoralists; agriculture was of less importance to them. Their society was subject to strong cultural influence from Volga Bulgaria, which neighboring the Mari. Mordva - a Finno-Ugric ethnic group, divided into two ethnographic groups - Erzya and Moksha, occupied a vast territory between the Volga, Oka, Tsna and Sura rivers. The land of the Mordovians as a special country “Mordia” is mentioned in the work of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus “On the Administration of the Empire” (mid-10th century).

In the IX-X centuries. The Cheremis and Mordovians were dependent on the Khazar Kaganate, and after its fall the influence of Rus' began to spread to them. As for the Cheremis, all information about its relations with Ancient Russia in the 10th-11th centuries. are limited to the above mention. Obviously, its connections with Ancient Russia were not particularly strong. One can also doubt the strong dependence of the “Mordovian land” on Ancient Rus'. Acquaintance with the records of chroniclers who worked in the north-east of Rus' shows that for the rulers of the Rostov land, the task of subjugating the Mordovian lands became relevant only after the foundation of Nizhny Novgorod in 1221 at the confluence of the Oka and the Volga. Reports about the campaigns of these princes against Mordovians contain important information about the economy and social structure of the Mordovian tribes. In an effort to break the resistance of the Mordovians, Russian troops “burned life and poisoned it.” This shows that the main economic occupation of the Mordvins in the 13th century. there was agriculture. The resistance offered to the troops of the Russian princes was stubborn, they repeatedly suffered serious losses. In 1228, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich himself set out on a campaign against Mordovians, but military operations continued with varying success even after that. By this time, the Mordovian tribes were already headed by princes who occupied different positions. Prince Puresh was a “rotnik” - a vassal of the Grand Duke of Vladimir who took the “rot” oath, and Prince Purgas was his opponent and attacked Nizhny Novgorod. The princes fought wars among themselves. So, the son of Puresh attacked Purgas together with the Polovtsians.

Nevertheless, the great princes of Vladimir managed to achieve certain successes in subjugating the lands of the Middle Volga region. The author of “The Lay of the Destruction of the Russian Land” recalled that before the Mongol-Tatar invasion, “Burtasi, Cheremisi, Vyada and Mordva fought against the great prince.” Vyada is the so-called Vada Mordovians, who inhabited the valley of the Vada River. Burtases in the sources of the 10th century. mentioned as one of the tribes

Middle Volga region, which at that time were subordinate to the Khazar Kaganate. According to some researchers, this could be the name given to the Turkic-speaking neighbors of the Mordovians - the Chuvash. “The Word of the Death of the Russian Land” is the first monument that notes the role of “beekeeping” - beekeeping as one of the main occupations of these tribes of the Middle Volga region. Therefore, tribute was collected from them in honey.

In their way of life, the Bashkir tribes differed from their neighbors, who were cattle breeders who raised horses and sheep. Roaming in the summer in the territory of the Southern Urals, they moved south in winter - to the valley of the Yaik River, the Caspian and Aral steppes. The Old Russian state did not have any contacts with the Bashkirs during the early Middle Ages.

What has been said about the population living in the forest zone of Eastern Europe allows us to draw two important conclusions. Firstly, the Old Russian state from the moment of its formation was multi-ethnic, and with the expansion of its borders, it included more and more new groups of non-Slavic population, which in the course of historical development joined the Old Russian people. Secondly, when assessing the state of Old Russian society in the pre-Mongol period, one should take into account that the insufficient surplus product produced by this society was significantly replenished by tribute from tribes on the western, northern and eastern borders of the Old Russian State. The income that came to Novgorod the Great in these centuries was especially significant.

Of the peoples neighboring the Old Russian state on the territory of Eastern Europe, a special place belonged to Volga Bulgaria. Although the Turkic-speaking Bulgarians were originally nomads who moved to the forest-steppe regions of the Middle Volga region from the Khazars' possessions lying to the south, already in the 10th century. There was a transition of the bulk of the population to agriculture. According to the testimony of Arab authors, they cultivated wheat, barley, millet and other crops. The political union created here was a real state, the ruler of which was a vassal of the Khazar Kagan. Its capital, the city of Bolgar, was an important center of trade, where Arab merchants met with the Rus, who brought furs and slaves from the North. Silver coins imitating Arab dirhems were minted here. In the first decades of the 10th century. the population of Volga Bulgaria converted to Islam. With the weakening and then the decline of the Khazar Kaganate, the Bulgarian state became independent.

The ruling elite of the Old Russian state understood that Bulgaria occupied a special place among its neighbors. This is evidenced by the folklore story read in the “Tale of Bygone Years”, how after Vladimir’s victory over the Bulgarians, his uncle Dobrynya, having discovered that the captured prisoners were all wearing boots, came to the conclusion that it would not be possible to collect tribute here and it would be better to look for those who go to bast shoes. This story reflected the idea of the wealth of Volga Bulgaria, in comparison with its neighboring tribes, and that it should be treated as a serious political partner.

This strong state sought to expand its borders in the North, spreading its influence to the Upper Volga region. According to the testimony of Arab authors of the 10th century, part of the Bashkir tribes paid tribute to the rulers of Volga Bulgaria. Part of the Bulgarian state by the 12th century. The lands of the southern branch of the Udmurts - the Ara in the lower reaches of the Kama - also entered. The Arab traveler Abu Hamid al-Garnati wrote that the Bulgarian rulers collected tribute from the village. Here the interests of the Bulgarian rulers collided with the interests of the rulers of the Rostov land. News of Bulgarian attacks on Suzdal and Yaroslavl has been preserved.

Since the 60s XII century The campaigns of the Russian princes against the Middle Volga began, the stories about which contain a number of important information about Volga Bulgaria. At the head of this state was the “Bulgarian prince”, to whom other “princes” were subordinate. During the hostilities, the Bulgarians fielded cavalry and foot troops, which stubbornly fought against the Russian armies. On the pages of the chronicles there are repeated references to the capital of the state - the “glorious great city of Bulgaria”, in which there are many goods. The Bulgarian state was a dangerous rival of the princes who sat in Vladimir on the Klyazma, but it lost the fight for the Upper Volga region with the founding of Nizhny Novgorod. The failures were apparently compensated by the expansion of the borders of the Bulgarian state in the south. The Bulgarian “guards” met Batu’s troops moving to Eastern Europe on the Yaik River.

In the steppe zone of Eastern Europe, with the weakening of the Khazar Khaganate, movements of nomad alliances began from across the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea region. By the end of the 9th century. The union of Pecheneg tribes became the master of the Eastern European steppes. According to the testimony of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the Pecheneg union consisted of eight tribes, four of them wandered to the east, and four to the west of the Dnieper. In the west, the lands where the Pechenegs roamed extended beyond the borders of Eastern Europe. Their nomads reached the northern borders of the First Bulgarian Kingdom and the eastern borders of the emerging Hungarian state. Detailed messages from Constantine Porphyrogenitus allow one to judge the nature of the Pechenegs’ relations with their neighbors. The constant raids of the Pechenegs on Russian lands and the measures taken to organize defense against them have already been mentioned above, but also about the relations between the Danube Bulgarians and the Pechenegs, Konstantin reports that the Bulgarians “were repeatedly defeated and robbed by them.” The Pechenegs maintained lively relations with the Byzantine cities in the Crimea, where they brought captured booty for sale and brought prisoners, receiving in return precious fabrics and spices. These relations did not end with raids and attacks on trade caravans that the Rus sent to Constantinople. The Russes bought horses and sheep from the Pechenegs, and the Pechenegs purchased wax, which they sold to Byzantine merchants. As a result of constant raids and trade, great wealth accumulated in the hands of the Pecheneg nobility. The Persian historian Gardizi wrote about the Pechenegs: they “have a lot of gold and silver dishes, a lot of weapons. They wear silver belts"/

The individual tribes were led by elected leaders. They were elected from one specific clan, but the transfer of the post of leader from father to son was not allowed; a representative of another branch of the clan had to inherit. The Pechenegs did not have any one supreme head, and individual tribes - hordes - were completely independent. Despite this, the Pechenegs were a formidable force, capable of causing serious harm to any of their neighbors with their intervention. It is no coincidence that one of the most powerful rulers of that time, the Byzantine emperor, considered it necessary to annually send ambassadors with rich gifts to the Pechenegs.

Serious setbacks in the fight against the Old Russian state (in 1036 Yaroslav the Wise inflicted a serious defeat on the Pechenegs near Kiev, and the defense lines created under Vladimir were moved to the east) weakened the Pechenegs. As a result, they were pushed aside in the middle of the 11th century. to the west are the Torque tribes (Uzes or Oguzes of the eastern sources). However, the dominance of the Torci in the Eastern European steppes did not last long. According to ancient Russian chronicles, their horde suffered great losses from famine and epidemics and was forced to give up their place to the Polovtsian tribes that came from the Southern Urals (Kipchaks from the eastern sources, Cumans from the western sources). Some of the Torks migrated to the Russian lands and went into the service of the Russian princes, who settled them along the eastern borders of Southern Rus', so that they would protect them from raids from the steppe. A particularly significant number of Torks were settled in the Kyiv land in the area of the Ros River, where at the end of the 11th century. their center was founded - the city of Torchesk. Having switched from nomadism to shepherding in new places, the Torques and other nomads who came to serve the Russian princes (Pechenegs, Berendeys, etc.) continued to engage in cattle breeding, retained their customs and beliefs (“their filthy” ancient Russian chronicles).

In the 60-70s. XI century Cuman tribes settled across the Eastern European steppes. The Pecheneg horde, having moved to the west, began to constantly invade the lands of Byzantium, which had by that time conquered the First Bulgarian Kingdom. In 1091, the horde was defeated by the troops of the Byzantine Emperor Alexei I Komnenos and the Polovs. From then until the middle of the 13th century. The Cumans were complete masters of the Eastern European steppes. The Polovtsians occupied the territory previously occupied by the Pechenegs. Like the Pechenegs, they carried out constant raids on their neighbors - the ancient Russian principalities, Byzantium, Hungary to capture booty and prisoners, most of whom were sold into slavery. Like the Pechenegs, the Cumans maintained contacts with trading cities in the Crimea, where they exchanged booty and prisoners for the goods they needed. Like the Pechenegs, the Cumans did not have a single leader and were divided into several independent hordes, which from time to time could unite to jointly participate in raids. Initially, like the Pechenegs, the Polovtsians were divided into two large associations, one wandering to the west, the other to the east of the Dnieper.

In the 12th century. in the east, in the Don and Cis-Caucasian steppes, the largest was the unification of the Polovtsians, led by the descendants of Khan Sharukan. Some of these Polovtsians, after the blows inflicted on this horde by Vladimir Monomakh at the beginning of the 12th century, moved to the territory of Georgia, entering the service of the Georgian king David the Builder. Several smaller hordes roamed next to it (Tokobichi, Oncherlyaevs, etc.). In the lower reaches of the Dnieper the Burchevich horde roamed, in the steppes adjacent to the Crimea and the Sea of Azov the “Lukomorsky” Polovtsy roamed; there was another, most western association of the Polovtsians, roaming the steppes from the Western Bug basin to the borders of Byzantium and Hungary.

According to researchers, Polovtsian society has reached a higher level of development than Pecheneg society. If in the second half of the 11th century. This society was still at the stage of camp nomadism - year-round constant movement across the steppes, without the allocation of permanent areas for individual clans or tribes, then by the 12th century. The permanent habitats of individual hordes have already been determined with stable migration routes and permanent places for winter and summer camps. In the Eastern European steppes, well moistened at that time and abundant in grass, there were favorable conditions for livestock farming - breeding horses, cattle, and sheep. In the context of the transition to a new method of nomadism, social differentiation intensified in Polovtsian society. The distinguished social elite - the nobility - took advantage of the traditional clan organization of society, which it headed, and, in particular, the cult of ancestors especially inherent in the Polovtsians. As such ancestors, the deceased representatives of the nobility were especially revered, on whose graves mounds were erected, decorated with their stone images. They were the object of worship and sacrifices were made to them. The emergence of hereditary khan dynasties among the Polovtsians also speaks of increased social differentiation. Thus, the largest association of Polovtsians in the Don steppes was successively led by Khan Sharukan, his sons Syrchan and Atrak, his grandson Konchak and great-grandson Yuri Konchakovich. In the stories about the campaigns of Russian princes against the Polovtsians in the second decade of the 12th century. mention is made of “cities” located on the territory of the Polovtsian nomads - the city of Sharukana on the banks of the Seversky Donets and Sugrov and Balin, located relatively close to it. These were places of permanent “camps” where there was a settled population serving the needs of the Polovtsian khans and nobility. New phenomena in the life of Polovtsian society made it more vulnerable to enemy attacks, but did not lead to a significant change in its relations with its neighbors. Constant raids on their lands remained part of the way of life of Polovtsian society.

The relations of the Cumans with Byzantium and Hungary did not differ significantly from those in earlier times with the Pechenegs. On the contrary, certain changes occurred in the relations between the Old Russian principalities and the Cumans. With the collapse of the Old Russian state and the emergence of alliances of princes fighting among themselves, situations increasingly arose when certain princes turned to the heads of individual hordes for support, involving them in inter-princely conflicts. The Polovtsians increasingly began to appear in Rus' as participants in princely strife, which facilitated the conditions for capturing booty. This was just one of the trends in the development of relations between the ancient Russian principalities and the Polovtsians. She was opposed by another - periodically, alliances of princes arose to jointly fight against the raids of nomads. However, it was the involvement of the Polovtsians in the inter-princely struggle that led to changes in the nature of relations - the conclusion of alliances between the princes and the Polovtsian khans led to the emergence of marriage alliances - Russian princes took the khan’s daughters as wives. So, in 1107, Vladimir Monomakh married his son Yuri to the daughter of the Polovtsian prince Aepa, from this marriage Andrei Bogolyubsky was born; Vladimir, the son of Igor Svyatoslavich, the hero of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” was married to Konchak’s daughter. This definitely contributed to the development of ethnocultural contacts between peoples. One of its results was the appearance of the Polovtsian legend about Atrak and Syrchan on the pages of the ancient Russian chronicle: Atrak, satisfied with his life in Georgia, did not want to return to his homeland, his brother sent him a singer, who gave him a sniff of the steppe grass, and Atrak returned to the Don steppes, saying : “It’s better to eat bones on your own land than to be glorious on someone else’s land.”

Throughout the entire period of the X-XIII centuries. the lands of southern Rus', bordering the steppe zone, constantly lost a significant part of the surplus product and its producers themselves, both of which became the prey of nomads. The lands of northern Rus' were in a better position; they were not subject to raids by nomads, and their ruling elite increased their income through tribute from neighboring tribes that were at a lower level of social development.

Conflicts with nomads in Eastern Europe were characteristic not only of Ancient Rus'. The news preserved in the chronicle from 1117 that the “Bulgarian prince” poisoned the Polovtsian khans who came to him for negotiations shows that for Volga Bulgaria the proximity to the nomads was a heavy burden.

Important changes occurred in the early Middle Ages in the life of the Alan tribes - descendants of the Iranian-speaking Scythians and Sarmatians. The main one was the transition in the foothill areas from cattle breeding to settled agriculture (the main grain crops are millet and wheat). This is evidenced by the finds by archaeologists of iron shares and openers, as well as grain. The same time was also marked by the development of crafts associated with the manufacture of ceramics, weapons, horse harness, and various jewelry. The accumulation of surplus product, made possible by these changes, created the preconditions for the social differentiation of Alan society. Already in the VIII-IX centuries. On the lands of the Alans, rich burials of equestrian warriors - vigilantes and “ordinary” burials appeared, devoid of rich things and weapons. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. A special state was formed on the lands of the Alans, which played in the X-XII centuries. important role in political life in the Caucasus. Arab writer of the first half of the 10th century. al-Masudi wrote about the “king” of the Alans as a powerful ruler who could bring 30 thousand horsemen to war. In the VII-IX centuries. The Alan tribes were dependent on the Khazars (a number of Alan tribes paid them tribute), together with whom they fought against the invasions of Arab troops. And the Alan state, initially dependent on the Khazar Kaganate, by the middle of the 10th century. became independent. Unlike the Khazars, the Pechenegs and Cumans did not try to include the peoples of the North Caucasus in their sphere of influence. X-XII centuries became the heyday of the material culture and military power of the Alans.

During this period, the borders of Alanya included a vast territory from the upper reaches of the Kuban to the borders of modern Dagestan. It was a real state of the early Middle Ages, part of the zone of Byzantine influence. By the 10th century refers to the construction of a network of stone fortresses on the territory of Alanya using Byzantine construction equipment. Even during their dependence on Khazaria, the Alans adopted Christianity from Byzantium. At the end of the 10th century, almost immediately after the Kyiv one, a special Alan metropolis was created. The Greek alphabet began to be used to write texts in the local language. The capital of the state was probably the settlement of Nizhny Arkhyz in the upper reaches of the Kuban. The ruler of Alania maintained friendly relations with the principalities on the territory of Dagestan, but relations with the Adyghe tribes were hostile; the Alans undertook campaigns against them, sometimes reaching the Black Sea coast. The existence of the Alanian state was put to an end by the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

On the territory of Dagestan, the main occupation of the population was pastoralism associated with the breeding of small livestock. Agriculture was also an important branch of the economy, but in the natural conditions existing in the region it could not play a major role. Iron smelting and processing developed quite early here, and special centers were established that were engaged in the manufacture of various iron products. The accumulated surplus product turned out to be sufficient for noticeable social differentiation of society, but due to the natural conditions of Dagestan, where different parts of the country are separated from each other by insurmountable natural obstacles, a number of political centers gradually emerged here. Already in sources of the 4th-5th centuries. "Eleven kings of the mountaineers" were mentioned in this territory. In the VII-VIII centuries. The rulers of the principalities on the territory of Dagestan were dependent on the Khazar Kagan. Together with the Khazars, they stubbornly fought against the Arab troops invading the North Caucasus. By the end of the 8th century. local princes were forced to convert to Islam, and from that time on, Islam began to spread throughout the territory of Dagestan. Initially, however, mosques were erected only in the residences of rulers, and the bulk of the population continued to adhere to pagan beliefs. The princes were also forced to pay tribute to the Arab caliph, but with the weakening of the caliphate in the 9th century. became independent. The final formation of the largest principalities on the territory of Dagestan - the Nusalstvo (Avaria), the Shamkhalate (on the land of the Kumyks) and the principality of Utsmiya Kaitag should probably be attributed to this time.

The accumulated natural resources turned out to be enough for the emerging social elite to subjugate the surrounding population and settle in fortified centers - fortresses. The main sources of existence for this elite - the princely families and their warriors - were the labor of slaves captured in the war and tribute from community members, often paid in coins, but mainly in livestock, grain, and handicrafts. A fairly isolated existence in a limited territory, a limited volume of surplus product, which could not increase significantly under given natural conditions - all this contributed to the fact that the social relations that developed here in the early Middle Ages continued to persist for a number of centuries.

The northwestern part of the North Caucasus was occupied by Adyghe tribes. The natural conditions and method of farming were close to what took place at the same time in the lands of Dagestan. Social relations among the Adyghe tribes were more archaic; the process of identifying the social elite was at the initial stage.

The peoples of Siberia in the early Middle Ages. In the early Middle Ages, important social and political changes took place in the steppe zone of Siberia, where, in the conditions of lively and diverse contacts with China and the states of Central Asia, large political associations were created.

The fall of the Turkic Khaganate in the fight against China (mid-7th century) contributed to the liberation of numerous tribes of the steppe strip of Siberia from the power of the Turkic Khagans. These tribes created a number of political associations that played an important role in the historical development of the region. The largest among them was the association created by the Yenisei Kyrgyz (ancestors of modern Khakassians).

The first mentions of the “Kyrgyz” living on the Yenisei River are found in the writings of the Chinese historian Sima Qian (1st century AD). Later, in the 6th century, they are mentioned among the peoples subordinate to the Turkic kagans. During the period of greatest power in the 9th-10th centuries. The unification of the Kyrgyz covered the territory from Lake Baikal in the east to the Altai Mountains in the west. The center of the Kyrgyz land was the Khakass-Minusinsk basin. This ethnic community was formed as a result of the mixing of the newcomer Mongoloid and local Caucasian populations.

The main occupation of the Kyrgyz was nomadic cattle breeding (breeding horses, cows, sheep), combined with hunting fur-bearing animals and fishing on large rivers. In accordance with this, the main military force of the Kyrgyz was the cavalry. At the same time, in some areas of the Khakass-Minusinsk basin, on the territory of Tuva, the existence of irrigated agriculture can be traced: finds of iron ploughshares indicate that the land was already cultivated with a plow. Therefore, the Kyrgyz lived not only in yurts, but also in permanent settlements, in log houses covered with birch bark. On the territory of the Kyrgyz land, in Kuznetsk Alatau, in Altai, there were centers of iron production, where a wide variety of products were made.

There was a noticeable social stratification in Kyrgyz society, as evidenced by the difference between the rich burials of the nobility in mounds surrounded by standing stones - chaatas, and the burials of ordinary Kyrgyz located around them. Archaeologists also discovered a wooden town with the remains of mud brick buildings - apparently the residence of the supreme head of the Kyrgyz. Depending on the Kyrgyz nobility were the taiga tribes neighboring their land, who paid tribute in sables and squirrels; here, during military campaigns, prisoners were captured, who then worked on the farms of noble people.

The nobility ruled individual tribes, relying on their relatives and squads. She traded with China and the countries of Central Asia, sending furs and iron products there and receiving silk fabrics, jewelry, and mirrors in exchange.

The Kyrgyz used the runic writing created in the Turkic Khaganate for their needs. Over 150 inscriptions have so far been found on the land of the Kyrgyz, most of them are epitaphs praising the deceased on stone steles placed on the graves of representatives of the nobility.

After the fall of the Turkic Kaganate, the unification of the Kyrgyz became independent and their leader, like the Turkic rulers, accepted the title of Kagan. In 649 his ambassador visited the court of the Chinese emperor.