Problem question. miscalculations
Changes in world politics after the end of the Cold War, as well as the democratization that began in the country, put Russia in the position of a country that must redefine its place in world politics, identify the priorities of its foreign policy that will determine its role and influence on the world stage. The development of such a strategy and tactics is determined not only by long-term plans for the renewal of the country, it is fully influenced by political traditions, mass and elite stereotypes, and modern foreign policy relations.
At present, we can talk about three main directions (ways, options) for Russia to develop its own line of conduct in the international arena.
The first option for choosing a foreign policy strategy is associated with attempts to maintain the status of a great power and continue the previous expansionist policy aimed at expanding the zone of political influence and control over other states. Despite the unfeasibility of this kind of alternative, it can be stated that the country has certain resources for its implementation. First of all, such a policy is possible on the basis of the threat of the state using its military, primarily nuclear, potential, the embodiment of certain ambitions of a part of the political leadership, as well as unsurmounted mass stereotypes (anti-Western, chauvinistic, etc.).
The second way involves Russia gaining the status of a regional power. In one case, its influence may be based primarily on the factors of forceful pressure on neighboring states and, in fact, repeat the logic of the behavior of a “superpower” in the local political space. In another option, the gain of political influence by a country can be based on the establishment of equal and mutually beneficial relations with its neighbors, the rejection of military and forceful threats against them and the conscious avoidance of involvement in world conflicts and contradictions.
The third way assumes that Russia can take a purely pragmatic foreign policy position based on the principle of equidistance from certain blocs of forces and pragmatic rapprochement or distance from specific coalitions and states. Thus, its national interests will be formed on a non-ideological basis, changing depending on the specific situation that is developing. With such an approach to foreign policy tasks, the country will be able to focus on solving economic and other domestic problems.
In the real political activity of the state, elements of each of the three possible strategies are intertwined, and each of them involves the indispensable solution of tasks related to the development of fundamental relations with at least three groups of its foreign policy counterparties: its allies, the West and the countries of the "third world".
When developing a foreign policy strategy, it is important to preserve the organic unity of the principles of formation of the foreign and domestic policy of the state. That is, the state should provide for the existence of uniform standards governing relations with all these groups of countries. Therefore, while fighting the authoritarian tendencies of the West, Russia should not itself allow such actions in relation to neighboring countries, condemning the manifestations of nationalism and fascism in the sphere of international relations; it should just as resolutely fight them within the country, demanding openness from its competitors, publicly cover their actions in the country and in the international arena.
Among the priority areas of Russia's foreign policy are the following:
Creation of a new system of relations with former socialist countries;
Entering the European and world community;
Development of new principles of interstate relations with the former republics of the USSR;
Development of a new military-political doctrine in the changed geopolitical space;
Activation of relations with China, countries of Southeast Asia;
Equitable development of relations with the USA;
Opposition to the establishment of a "unipolar" world under the auspices of the United States;
Participation in peacekeeping actions to end armed conflicts under the auspices of the UN.
New political thinking. Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR E. A. Shevardnadze In July 1985, the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs was taken by E. Shevardnadze. Soon the main features of the new course were defined - the normalization of relations with the West, the end of the confrontation with the United States and its allies. This policy has been called "New Thinking". These ideas were not new. They were previously put forward by prominent scientists, philosophers and politicians I. Kant, M. Gandhi, A. Einstein, B. Russell and others. Gorbachev's merit was that he was the first of the powerful politicians to put these principles at the basis of real foreign policy. Main Directions of Foreign Policy Soviet-American Summit Moscow 1988 1. In 1987, an agreement was signed on the elimination of intermediate and shorter range missiles. 2 . In 1989, Gorbachev declared that the Brezhnev Doctrine was dead. 3. In 1991, an agreement was signed on the limitation of strategic offensive arms. Main Directions of Foreign Policy Reducing the strength of the USSR Armed Forces and defense spending. 1989-90 Summer 1991 George Bush nominated Gorbachev "6 conditions" where the West will continue to cooperate with the USSR - democracy, market, federation, policy change in the Middle East, refusal to modernize the Soviet nuclear missile forces. The main directions of foreign policy Revolution in Bucharest. Changes in Eastern Europe began in 1987. Under pressure from Gorbachev, the process of changing the political leadership and democratization of society began here. Since 1989, the process of withdrawal of Soviet troops from the region began. As a result of the "velvet revolutions" totalitarian regimes fell in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, BPR, Albania. In 1989, the regime of N. Ceausescu in Romania was overthrown. The Berlin Wall The Fall of the Berlin Camp The main directions of foreign policy
- In the spring of 1991, the Warsaw Pact was dissolved, and this increased criticism of Gorbachev at home.
In the first two years of Gorbachev's rule, the foreign policy of the USSR was based on traditional ideological priorities. But in 1987-1988 serious adjustments were made to them. Gorbachev offered the world "new political thinking". It seriously changed international relations for the better and significantly reduced tension in the world. However, some serious miscalculations by the Soviet leadership and the economic crisis in the USSR led to the fact that the West benefited the most from the new political thinking, and the prestige of the USSR in the world fell noticeably. This was one of the reasons for the collapse of the USSR.
Causes of changes in the foreign policy of the USSR.
In the mid-1980s, the foreign policy of the USSR reached a dead end in many respects.
1) There was a real danger of a new round of the Cold War, which would have heated up the situation in the world even more.
2) The Cold War could completely ruin the Soviet economy, which was going through a severe crisis.
4) ideological "taboos" limited the foreign economic activity of the USSR itself, hindering the full development of the Soviet economy.
New political thinking.
The proposals put forward by Gorbachev within the framework of the new political thinking were revolutionary in nature and fundamentally contradicted the traditional foundations of the foreign policy of the USSR.
Basic principles of "new thinking":
Renunciation of ideological confrontation, of dividing the world into two warring political systems and recognition of the world as one, indivisible and interdependent;
The desire to solve international problems not from a position of strength, but on the basis of a balance of interests of the parties. This would nullify the arms race, mutual hostility and create an atmosphere of trust and cooperation;
Recognition of the priority of universal human values over class, national, ideological, religious, etc. Thus, the USSR abandoned the principle of the socialist international, recognizing the supreme interests of all mankind.
In accordance with the new political thinking, three main directions of the foreign policy of the USSR were defined:
Normalization of relations with the West and disarmament;
Resolution of international conflicts;
Broad economic and political cooperation with various countries without ideological restrictions, without singling out the socialist countries.
The results of the policy of "new thinking".
Tension in the world has significantly eased. There was even talk of the end of the Cold War. The image of the enemy, which had been forming for decades on both sides of the Iron Curtain, was actually destroyed.
For the first time in history, there was not just a limitation of nuclear weapons - the elimination of entire classes of nuclear weapons began. Europe was also freed from conventional weapons.
The process of closer integration of the USSR and the socialist countries of Europe into the world economy and into international political structures began.
Relations of the USSR with the West
An important consequence of the "new political thinking" was the annual meetings of MS Gorbachev with US Presidents R. Reagan, and then D. Bush. These meetings resulted in important decisions and agreements that significantly reduced tension in the world.
In 1987, an agreement was signed between the USSR and the USA on the destruction of intermediate and shorter range missiles. For the first time, the two superpowers agreed not to reduce these weapons, but to completely eliminate them.
In 1990, an agreement was signed on the reduction of conventional arms in Europe. As a gesture of goodwill, the USSR unilaterally reduced its defense spending and reduced the size of its armed forces by 500,000 men.
In 1991, an agreement was signed on the limitation of strategic offensive arms (OSNV-1). It made it possible to begin the reduction of nuclear weapons in the world.
In parallel with the disarmament policy, new economic relations with the United States and other Western countries began to take shape. Ideological principles had less and less influence on the foreign policy of the USSR and on the nature of its relations with the countries of the West. But further rapprochement with the West soon had a very unfavorable reason. The worsening economic situation in the Soviet Union made it more and more dependent on the West, from which the leadership of the USSR expected to receive economic assistance and political support. This forced Gorbachev and his entourage to make increasingly serious and often one-sided concessions to the West. Ultimately, this led to a fall in the prestige of the USSR.
USSR and regional conflicts
In 1989, the USSR withdrew its troops from Afghanistan. At the II Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, the Afghan war was recognized as a gross political mistake.
In the same year, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia began. At the same time, the USSR contributed to the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops from Kampuchea (Cambodia). All this led to improved relations with China. Cross-border trade was restored between the two great powers, and a series of important agreements on political, economic and cultural cooperation was signed.
The USSR refused to directly intervene in conflicts in Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia, and Nicaragua. Result: the civil war ended in Angola, Cambodia and Nicaragua, representatives of the warring parties formed coalition governments.
The Soviet Union significantly reduced gratuitous aid to allied regimes and ideological adherents. Stopped supporting the regimes in Libya and Iraq. And during the crisis in the Persian Gulf in 1990, for the first time, he supported the actions of the West.
In 1991, an international agreement was concluded that contributed to the improvement of Israel's relations with neighboring Arab countries. The USSR played a major role in this event.
All these steps have significantly reduced tension in the world and contributed to the improvement of the international political climate. However, the Soviet Union was not destined to take advantage of the fruits of its efforts.
Relations with socialist countries. The collapse of the socialist camp. Political defeat of the USSR.
In 1989, the USSR began to withdraw its troops from the socialist countries of Eastern and Central Europe.
At the same time, anti-socialist sentiments intensified in these countries.
In 1989-1990, "velvet" revolutions took place here, as a result of which power passed peacefully from the communist parties to the national democratic forces. Only in Romania during the change of power there were bloody clashes.
Yugoslavia broke up into several states. Croatia and Slovenia, which were part of Yugoslavia, declared themselves independent republics. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a war broke out for territory and independence between the Serbian, Croatian and Muslim communities. Only Serbia and Montenegro remained in Yugoslavia.
In 1990, the two Germanys united: the GDR became part of the FRG. At the same time, the united Germany retained its membership in NATO. The USSR did not express any particular objections to this.
Practically all the new governments of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe also took the course of moving away from the USSR and rapprochement with the West. They expressed their full readiness to join NATO and the Common Market.
In the spring of 1991, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the military bloc of the socialist countries, the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD), ceased to exist. The socialist camp finally disintegrated.
The leadership of the USSR took a position of non-interference in the processes that radically changed the political map of Europe. The reason was not only in the new political thinking. By the end of the 1980s, the USSR economy was experiencing a catastrophic crisis. The country was sliding into an economic abyss and was too weak to carry out a strong and fairly independent foreign policy. As a result, the Soviet Union found itself heavily dependent on Western countries.
Left without old allies and without acquiring new ones, finding itself in a difficult economic situation, the USSR quickly lost the initiative in international affairs. Soon, the NATO countries increasingly began to ignore the opinion of the USSR on the most important international problems.
Western countries did not provide the USSR with serious financial assistance. They were more and more inclined to support individual union republics, encouraging their separatism. This was also one of the reasons for the collapse of the USSR.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, only one superpower remained in the world - the United States. The second superpower, the USSR, having lost old friends, did not find in the West the allied relations that it had counted on. It collapsed under the influence of external and internal factors. In December 1991, US President George W. Bush announced the end of the Cold War and congratulated Americans on their victory.
Goals:
1. To introduce students to the main foreign policy events in 1985-1991.
2. Bring students to an understanding of the results of the "new thinking" policy.
3. Continue the formation of skills to independently work with documents, the text of the textbook, analyze, draw conclusions, state the “cross-cutting” questions of the topic.
Equipment:
Textbook on the history of Russia XX - the beginning of the XXI century for grade 9, authors: A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina, M.Yu. Brandt.
Experimental textbook by E. Saplina, V. Sorokina, I. Ukolova "Difficult paths to democracy",
Political map of the world, atlases on the history of Russia,
Presentation for the lesson (
Handout material for students.
Board layout:
Quote on the blackboard: “The essence of perestroika is that it combines socialism and democracy, theoretically and practically restores the Leninist concept of socialist construction ...
Therefore, more socialism, more democracy. We will move towards a better socialism…”
M.S. Gorbachev
Portrait of M.S. Gorbachev.
Chronicle of events:
1990 - MS Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by a unanimous decision of the Nobel Committee.
This material can be displayed through an everhead projector.
During the classes
1. Organizational moment.
2. Checking homework in order to update the basic knowledge of students on the topic "Policy of Glasnost: Achievements and Costs". Slide number 1.
The teacher reports: At the XXVII Congress of the CPSU in February 1986, M.S. Gorbachev in his innovative report uttered three key words - “perestroika”, “acceleration”, “glasnost”.
Front poll:
Define perestroika.
-What caused it?
What does the term "acceleration" mean?
-What is publicity?
Match events and dates.
XIX Party Conference, 1st Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, collapse of the USSR, beginning of economic reforms, development of the program "500" days, introduction of the post of President of the USSR.
1989,1991,1988,1990,1990,1987.
XIX Party Conference - 1988,
Elections of the 1st Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR - 1989,
The collapse of the USSR - 1991,
The beginning of economic reforms - 1987,
Development of the program "500 days" -1990.
Introduction of the post of President of the USSR - 1990.
At the choice of the teacher, self-survey of students on the topic of homework can be organized, which makes it possible for more students to take part in the discussion of the problem and the speeches of their comrades.
3. Learning new material. Slide #4:
Topic study plan:
1. New political thinking.
2. East-West. The beginning of disarmament.
3. Unblocking regional conflicts.
4. The collapse of the socialist system.
5. Results of the policy of "new thinking".
The teacher reports the topic of the lesson, the plan for studying the topic, recalls the need to use special terminology when considering the problem, explains the learning task for students: fill in the table “Outcomes of foreign policy” in the course of work in the lesson.
positive changes |
miscalculations |
Work with the handout dictionary: "cold war", bipolar world, "third world", NATO, police department, CMEA, "socialist camp", "velvet" revolutions, the dialectics of new thinking, proletarian internationalism.
At the same time, the presentation slides are shown. .
The study of new material begins with a listing of the features of the Cold War.
Students call the arms race, bipolarity
(split) of the world, the creation of military-political blocs, the presence of local conflicts.
The teacher reports: The head of the foreign policy department was E.A. Shevardnadze.
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR
Eduard Ambrosevich Shevardnadze
Born in 1928 in the mountainous village of Mamati, Chokhatauri region. Since 1957 to 1961 - First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Komsomol of Georgia. From 1965 to 1972 - Minister of Internal Affairs of Georgia. In 1972 becomes the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia. Gained fame as an extraordinary leader. In 1985 E.A. Shevardnadze is appointed to the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, replacing Andrei Andreevich Gromyko, who held out on this position for 28 years. Member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU in 1985-90.
(if desired, you can instruct the student in advance to prepare a brief historical portrait of E.A. Shevardnadze ).
The teacher continues: At the beginning of perestroika, a new philosophical and political concept appears, called "new political thinking."
The essence of this concept is revealed with the help of
“New political thinking is a view of the world through a person, his interests. I passionately wished that we would talk with my foreign colleagues as people who have common concerns.”
E.A.Shevardnadze
The main directions of foreign policy:
- Normalization of East-West relations
- Unblocking regional conflicts
- Establishment of close economic and mutually beneficial contacts between countries
"New political thinking"
- Rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world
- Recognition of the world as integral and indivisible
- Refusal of force methods
- Rejection of the principles of proletarian internationalism
Opening the 2nd question of the topic, teacher offers characterize the USSR-West relations with the help of the textbook "Chronicle of Events" p.137-138
USSR and USA: the beginning of disarmament
- Annual Summits
- Signing of an agreement on the destruction of intermediate and shorter range missiles
- Agreement on START-1
Why were the peaceful initiatives of MS Gorbachev met differently by the Americans and the Soviet people?
Considering the third question of the topic, students recall, what local conflicts occurred?
Resolution of regional conflicts
1989 - completion of the withdrawal of the Soviet military contingent from Afghanistan
1989 Visit M.S. Gorbachev to China
1991 – Madrid Agreement on the Arab-Israeli Conflict
Students get to know each other with the material "Afghan War" pp. 141-142 of the manual (Appendix No. 3).
With the help of a textbook (p.349 ) students call events that characterize the unblocking of regional conflicts and draw a conclusion.
What countries were part of the socialist camp? Students show them on a map.
Students analyze the documents in the manual p.144-145 "Farewell, Eastern Europe!"
The collapse of the socialist system
1989-1990 - withdrawal of Soviet troops from Eastern Europe
1990 - consent to the unification of Germany
1991 - dissolution of the CMEA and the Department of Internal Affairs
Students discuss A. Beketov's poem "Already towers under rubies ..." p.146 in the manual (Appendix No. 5).
How do you understand the lines of the poet "and slavery melts slowly, like ice in the Kolyma backwater"?
Students draw conclusions on the topic with the help of notes that they kept during the lesson. You can use the entries in the table "Results of foreign policy".
Students' conclusion:
The current international situation forced the Russian leadership to abandon the old methods of interaction and develop a new concept.
The teacher introduces the various opinions of eyewitnesses of perestroika in foreign policy.
Critics: undermined the foundations of the country's defense
Reformists:
National security is ensured not by piles of weapons, but by radical reforms.
The teacher is interested in the opinion of the students.
4. Reflection.
- The teacher conducts dictionary check. Oral survey.
Show by examples how the foreign policy of the USSR during the period of perestroika reflected the peculiarities of domestic policy?
§52 ,
work on the contour map:
Example: Indicate with a certain sign the states that signed the Final Act of the CSCE.
Soviet foreign policy in the period under review was quite active. Despite the unfolding arms race and increased international tension in the 70s, the Soviet Union came up with a number of peacekeeping initiatives. In 1970, an agreement was signed between the USSR and the FRG, in which both sides renounced the use of force and confirmed the post-war borders. In 1972, our country and the United States of America signed the Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Arms (SALT-1), and in 1978 they concluded the Treaty on the Limitation of Intermediate-Range Missiles. Agreements were signed on cooperation between the Soviet Union and Great Britain and Japan in the field of building industrial enterprises on the territory of the USSR.
The "détente" culminated in the pan-European Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) with the participation of the United States and Canada. It began its work in 1973 in the city of Helsinki (Finland). Then it worked for two years in Geneva and ended again in Helsinki, where the Final Act was signed, aimed at regulating relations and ensuring peace in Europe. It was envisaged to hold meetings of representatives of the participating States to verify the implementation of its provisions. The Soviet leadership, headed by L.I. Brezhnev, regarded the Helsinki process as their own victory in detente international tension. The results of the meeting interested the USSR only from the point of view of recognizing the borders in Europe that had developed after the Second World War, and its special position in it. Western countries, on the other hand, believed that the main point was the violation of human rights in the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. The process of "détente" soon gave way to a new round of the arms race. In the USSR, appropriations for defense were constantly increasing, and interference in the affairs of other states continued. Soviet troops were in Eastern European countries, in Vietnam, Syria, Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia.
But the main miscalculation in the foreign policy of the USSR was the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan in December I, 1979. In 1978 As a result of a military coup, the People's Democratic Party, supported by the party and state leaders of the USSR, came to power in Afghanistan. The Soviet leadership, providing military and political assistance to Afghanistan, sought to include this underdeveloped country in the socialist camp. In 1979 Soviet troops were sent to Afghanistan. The world community has sharply negatively assessed the actions of the USSR in Afghanistan. The prestige of the Soviet country in the international arena declined. Over a million and a half Soviet soldiers participated in the Afghan war for ten years. The Afghan war was a severe trauma for the Soviet people. It claimed the lives of 17,000 young "warriors-internationalists" who did not fully realize what they were fighting for.
The USSR provided material and military assistance to many developing countries, including Angola, Mozambique, Nicaragua, and others. However, this assistance negatively affected the Soviet economy, worsened the socio-political climate in our country, and reduced its authority in the international arena.
In the last years of L.I. Brezhnev's stay in power, he was ill a lot and, in fact, could not fully cope with the duties of the head of state. By the end of his life, he probably got everything he dreamed of: he was the first person in the party and the state, he was a marshal of the Soviet Union, four times Hero of the Soviet Union and Hero of Socialist Labor.
According to the memoirs of his inner circle, Brezhnev, unlike Stalin and Khrushchev, did not have bright personal characteristics. He was a man of the apparatus and, in essence, a servant of the apparatus. If we keep in mind human qualities, then Brezhnev was a good person, sociable, stable in his affections, hospitable host. So it was until the first half of the 70s, and then he began to collapse as a person and as a politician. In November 1982, L.I. Brezhnev died.
Brezhnev's successor was Yu.V. Andropov. Being a sane politician, he, through strengthening control and official discipline, tried to increase the efficiency of the bureaucratic system without affecting its structure. In the mass consciousness, there was a hope for a change for the better. After Andropov's death in February 1984, the elderly and ill K.U. Chernenko, whose rule in many ways resembled Brezhnev's. The period of leadership of Chernenko turned out to be short - until March 10, 1985.
Questions for self-control:
1. Describe the internal political and socio-economic development of the country in 1965-1985.
2. What are the reasons for the emergence of the dissident movement in the USSR.
3. Analyze the main achievements and difficulties of the detente policy.
Literature:
1. Georgieva N.G. Russian culture: history and modernity: Textbook / N.G. Georgiev. - M., 1998.
2. Zuev M.N. History of Russia: Textbook for universities / M.N. Zuev. - M., 2005.
3. History of Russia: IX-XXI centuries. From Rurik to Putin: Textbook / Ed. ed. Ya.A. Perekhov. –M., Rostov-on-Don, 2005.
4. History of Russia: In 2 volumes / A.N. Sakharov, L.E. Morozova, M.A. Rakhmatullin. - M., 2003.
5. Orlov A.S. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. Textbook / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M., 2003.
6. Semennikova L.I. Russia in the world community of civilizations / L.I. Semennikova. - Bryansk, 1995.
7. Strukov A.V. Domestic history from ancient times to the present: Textbook / A.V. Strukov. - Voronezh, 2005.
8. Shapovalov V.M. The origins and meaning of Russian civilization: Textbook / V.M. Shapovalov. - M. 2003.
End of work -
This topic belongs to:
A course of lectures on the discipline Domestic History Lecture No. 1 Topic: Formation and development of the Old Russian state. Kievan Rus in IX-XII centuries
Voronezh Institute of High Technologies.. Faculty of Correspondence Education.. A V Strukov N V Bozhko..
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The economic and social development of Russia directly depended on the conditions for the implementation of the peasant reform. From the second half of the XIX century. capitalism began to establish itself as the dominant social
Policy of counter-reforms of Alexander III
Considering the government course of Alexander III (1881-1894), it should be borne in mind that he went down in history as a period of "counter-reforms". The closest circle of Alexander III were the most
Features of the social movement in the post-reform period. Populism
Second half of the 19th century in the spiritual sphere is characterized by contradictory tendencies. On the one hand, in the second half of the 50s of the XIX century. (the period of preparation of the peasant reform) in the social
Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century
In the foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. three main directions can be distinguished: 1) the European policy of Russia: the struggle for the revision of the results of the Crimean War, the strengthening of the position of Ro
Russian culture of the 19th century
The main distinguishing feature of the development of Russian culture in the 19th century was that it developed rapidly, managed to reach the world level, and in some areas even surpassed it.
Socio-economic and political situation
characteristic feature of the early twentieth century. was the process of establishing monopoly capitalism. This was facilitated by the development of the productive forces of society. Achievements in the field of natural sciences
Revolution of 1905-1907: background, main stages and results
The beginning of the revolution was the events of January 9, 1905. In Petersburg. Priest G. A. Gapon, associated since 1902 with Zubatov and since 1904. head of the Assembly of factory workers of St. Petersburg,
Reforms P.A. Stolypin
The implementation of reforms is associated with the name of P.A. Stolypin, who proclaimed the principle: "first calm, and then reforms." In this spirit, the government program published on August 24
Russia's participation in the First World War
Back in 1882, the Tripartite Alliance was concluded, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. He was opposed by the alliance between England, France and Russia that arose just before the start of the war, created in
February Revolution 1917
By the beginning of 1917. Russia is in a critical situation. The economy overcame the difficulties of the first months of the war and provided the armed forces with everything they needed relatively well. However, under the influence
Alternatives for the development of Russia and socio-political practice in the spring-summer of 1917
The February Revolution and the overthrow of the autocracy confronted Russia with the choice of the path of further development. The situation in the country had changed radically, but the prospects were not yet clear. In Russia there was
Political situation in autumn 1917 Bolsheviks come to power
The failure of the "Kornilovism" at the end of August 1917 opened the way for the Bolsheviks to come to power. Bolshevization of the Soviets began in places. Since September 1917, the leadership of the Soviets passed to them and their litter
Civil war in Russia: causes, course, results
The proclamation of Soviet power as a result of the October Revolution intensified open opposition in society. As early as next year, the intensity of political passions in Russia kindled ruthlessly
Transition to a new economic policy. NEP-Based Transformations
20 - 30s. XX century occupy their well-defined place in world and national history. It was at this time that a new geopolitical and economic situation was taking shape in Europe,
Intra-party struggle during the years of the NEP
With the transition to the NEP, there is a certain liberalization of the political regime. The armed forces were significantly reduced (by 10 times), the system of coercion was weakened, there was a "revival"
Formation of the USSR
The characterization of the country's socio-political development in the 1920s would be incomplete without an analysis of the problems of nation-state building and the country's relations with the outside world.
Socio-economic development: a course towards industrialization and collectivization
Industrialization - the creation of large-scale machine production, primarily heavy industry (energy, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, petrochemistry and other basic industries); P
The formation of a totalitarian system and the establishment of the regime of personal power of V.I. Stalin
Modern researchers assess the nature of the changes that took place in the political system of the Soviet state in the 1930s in different ways. Most call this time a victory for
The foreign policy of the Soviet state in the 1920-30s
The end of the First World War (the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919), the civil war and foreign intervention in Russia created new conditions in the international
Culture in the 1920s and 30s
The policy of the Soviet state in the field of culture in the 20-30s. was focused on turning the system of education, social sciences, literature, art into tools for “educating
The beginning of the war. Reasons for the failures of the Red Army
What was the policy of the Soviet Union after the start of World War II? In 1939-1940. Stalin was concerned primarily with the annexation of the territories of Eastern Europe to the USSR.
A turning point in the course of the war
In July 1942, German troops under the command of Field Marshal F. Paulus launched an attack on Stalingrad (now Volgograd), a former key point in the Volga region. August 23 fascist
The end of the Great Patriotic War and the Second World War. Results and the price of victory
In 1944, the offensive operations of the Red Army continued. Their peculiarity was that the offensive was carried out along the entire front, from Odessa in the south to Pechenga in the north (so
Restoration and development of the national economy
During the years of the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet Union suffered not only the greatest human losses, but also huge material damage, which amounted to an astronomical amount of about 3 trillion
internal political life of the country. 1945-1953
The transition to peaceful construction required the reformation of state administration. In September 1945, the State Defense Committee (GKO) was abolished, the functions of which were transferred to the Soviet
Socio-economic and political transformations of N.S. Khrushchev
In March 1953, I.V. died. Stalin. Immediately after his death, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU was held, at which positions in the management of the state and the party were distributed. Key positions in
Foreign policy of the USSR. 1945-1964
The geopolitical structure of the world as a result of the defeat of Germany and its allies acquired new centers of influence, the world became more and more bipolar. In the alignment of forces, the main role now belonged to
Reform of 1965 and socio-economic development of the country
After the removal of N.S. Khrushchev at the October (1964) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, L.I. Brezhnev was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Party. At first, many of the party
Features of political and spiritual development
In 1977 a new Soviet Constitution was adopted. It was based on the concept of developed socialism. By the mid-1970s, it became clear that the building of communism outlined by the Program
The search for ways to "improve socialism": changes in the economic, social, political spheres
After Chernenko's death, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU began a struggle for the post of head of the country. M.S. won this fight. Gorbachev, who had many years of experience in party work behind him
The policy of "new thinking" in international relations
The ideological basis on which the international relations of the USSR were built during the period of perestroika was the so-called new political thinking. New policy announced by the Soviet
Exacerbation of national problems. The collapse of the USSR
One of the problems that caused the collapse of perestroika and the collapse of the USSR was the aggravation of interethnic relations, which was explained by numerous problems in national relations.
Socio-economic transformations
In 1992, economic measures were continued to transfer the command-administrative principles of management to a market system of regulation. The core of the economic reform was the program "sho
Radical political modernization
The course towards economic liberalization, the ongoing economic crisis and the lack of social guarantees caused dissatisfaction and irritation among a significant part of the population. Dissatisfaction result
The main directions of foreign policy activity of modern Russia
After the collapse of the USSR, Russia's position in the international arena changed. The foreign policy concept of the Russian Federation included the following tasks:
