Psychological diagnosis. quality criteria for psychological diagnosis
The concept of “psychological diagnosis”. Types of psychological diagnosis.
The central concept of PD is “psychological diagnosis.”
Psychological diagnosis is the final result of a psychologist’s activity, aimed at identifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person with the aim of:
Assessment of their active state;
-forecast for further development;
Psychological diagnosis is a structured description of a complex of interrelated psychological properties - abilities; stylistic traits and motives of personality.
Diagnosis based on stating the presence (absence) of any sign
Diagnosis based on determining the place of the subject (group of persons) according to the severity of certain qualities
Levels (according to L. S. Vygotsky):
Symptomatic (empirical)
Etiological
Typological
Users:
Psychologists
Specialists of related specialties (doctors, teachers, etc.)
Researched
History of the development of psychodiagnostics abroad
History of the development of domestic psychodiagnostics
Sources of psychodiagnostics
Experimental psychology
(W. Wund, 1878)
Differential psychology
(J. Esquirol, 1838, E. Seguin, 1846)
Main stages in the development of psychodiagnostics
80 19th century - first decade of the 20th century
.Appearance testing: tests F. Galton (1879), J. Cattell (1891), A. Binet - T. Simon scale (1905, 1908, 1911) and its modifications (Stanford - Binet scale, 1916), "Psychological profiles" G.I.Rossolimo (1910
Years of the First World War
The emergence of group testing: army tests “Alpha”, “Beta” by A. Otis
20 – 30 years 20th century Abroad:
“Test boom”: development of tests of special abilities and achievements, personality questionnaires, projective techniques and their widespread use in practice.
IN THE USSR: the actual cessation of psychodiagnostic research after the release of the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On pedological perversions in the system of People’s Commissariat of Education” (1936)
40 – 50 years 20th century Abroad: formation of basic psychodiagnostic approaches (objective, subjective, projective).
IN THE USSR: the beginning of the development of psychophysiological methods (school of B.M. Teplov - V.D. Nebylitsyn)
60 – 70 years 20th century Abroad: the beginning of a discussion about the role of individual - psychological and situational variables that determine the variability of behavior.
IN THE USSR: development of experimental diagnostic techniques in pathopsychology (B.V. Zeigarnik, S.Ya. Rubinstein), neuropsychology (A.R. Luria), discussion about the attitude to foreign experience in the field of psychodiagnostics, beginning of the analysis of existing problems.
Contribution of L.S. Vygotsky to the development of psychodiagnostics
Vygotsky’s emergence as a scientist coincided with the period of restructuring of Soviet psychology based on the methodology of Marxism, in which he took an active part. In search of methods for objective study of complex forms of mental activity and personal behavior, Vygotsky critically analyzed a number of philosophical and most contemporary psychological concepts (“The Meaning of the Psychological Crisis,” manuscript, 1926), showing the futility of attempts to explain human behavior by reducing higher forms of behavior to lower elements .
By exploring verbal thinking, Vygotsky solves in a new way the problem of localizing higher mental functions as structural units of brain activity. Studying the development and disintegration of higher mental functions using the material of child psychology, defectology and psychiatry, Vygotsky comes to the conclusion that the structure of consciousness is a dynamic semantic system of affective volitional and intellectual processes that are in unity.
L. S. Vygotsky's ideas about psychological diagnosis
Psychological diagnostics emerged from psychology and began to take shape at the turn of the 20th century under the influence of practical requirements. Its emergence was prepared by several trends in the development of psychology. Actually, psychodiagnostic work in Russia began to develop in the post-revolutionary period. Especially many such works appeared in the 20-30s in the field of pedology and psychotechnics due to the growing popularity of the test method in Soviet Russia and abroad. Theoretical developments contributed to the development of testing in our country.
The subject of psychological diagnosis is the establishment of individual psychological differences, both in normal and pathological conditions. The development of a theory of psychological diagnosis is one of the most important tasks of psychodiagnostics.
Diagnosis can be made at different levels.
The first level - symptomatic (or empirical) diagnosis is limited to the statement of certain characteristics or symptoms, on the basis of which practical conclusions are directly drawn. Here, by establishing certain individual psychological characteristics, the researcher is deprived of the opportunity to directly indicate their causes and place in the personality structure. L.S. Vygotsky noted that such a diagnosis is not strictly scientific, because the establishment of symptoms never automatically leads to a true diagnosis.
The second level - etiological - takes into account not only the presence of certain characteristics and characteristics (symptoms) of the individual, but also the reasons for their appearance. The most important element of a scientific psychological diagnosis is to clarify in each individual case why these manifestations are found in the behavior of the subject, what are the causes of the observed characteristics and what are their possible consequences for child development. A diagnosis that takes into account not only the presence of certain features (symptoms), but also the cause of their occurrence is called etiological.
The third level - the highest - consists of determining the place and meaning of the identified characteristics in a holistic, dynamic picture of the personality, in the overall picture of the client’s mental life. For now, we often have to limit ourselves to a first-level diagnosis, and psychodiagnostics and its methods are usually talked about in connection with the methods of identification and measurement themselves.
The diagnosis is inextricably linked with the prognosis; according to L.S. Vygotsky, the content of the prognosis and diagnosis coincide, but the prognosis requires the ability to understand the “internal logic of self-movement” of the development process so much as to be able to anticipate the path of subsequent development based on the existing picture of the present. It is recommended to divide the forecast into separate periods and resort to long-term repeated observations.
L. S. Vygotsky’s ideas about psychological diagnosis, expressed in his work “Diagnostics of Development and Pedological Clinic of Difficult Childhood” (1936), are still important today. As L.S. Vygotsky believed, this should be a developmental diagnosis, the main task of which is to monitor the progress of the child’s mental development. To carry out control, it is necessary to give a general assessment of the child’s mental development based on compliance with standard age indicators, as well as to identify the causes of the child’s psychological problems. The latter involves an analysis of the holistic picture of his development, including the study of the social situation of development, the level of development of activities leading for a given age (playing, learning, drawing, designing, etc.).
It is quite obvious that such a diagnosis is impossible without relying on age-related developmental psychology. In addition, the practice of developmental psychological counseling requires improving the existing one and searching for a new methodological arsenal.
Classifications
According to the degree of formalization
High level of formalization methods
(characterized by a certain regulation, standardization, reliability, validity; they allow collecting diagnostic information in a relatively short time and in a form that makes it possible to quantitatively and qualitatively compare individuals with each other):
TestsQuestionnaireProjective techniques
Psychophysiological techniques
Standardization of tests.
The original total score is not a measure that can be interpreted diagnostically and is referred to as the raw test score.
Test scores from the raw scale must be converted to a standard scale; this procedure is called test score standardization.
The sample on which the statistical norm is determined is called a standardization sample; its number must be at least 200 people.
The simplest linear standardization of a test score is calculated using the formula:
Z – standard score
X – raw test score
X – average score for the standardization sample
Sx – sample average deviation
After receiving a test score Z, it can be converted to any standard scale accepted in diagnostics.
The extent to which a standardization sample allows the test to be applied to a wide population is called representativeness, i.e. the extent to which this test is applicable to different categories of people.
Restandardization is a study aimed at revising test norms and, in some cases, other test components.
Type Verification Methods
Test-retest reliability Repeated examination of the same sample - test-retest method
Reliability of test parts(according to internal consistency) - Dividing the tasks of the method (test) into equal parts (even - odd) and examining the same sample - the “splitting” method
Reliability of parallel forms-- Dividing the sample into two equal parts and examining one of them using the first form of the technique, and the other using the second.
Reliability – constancy(independence of results from the personality of the diagnostician) - Examination of the same sample under relatively identical conditions by different diagnosticians
Construct validity– a type of validity that reflects the degree to which a psychological construct (i.e., a theoretical idea developed to explain and organize certain aspects of existing knowledge) is represented in test results.
Convergent validity – type of construct validity, reflecting the degree of connection with a related technique that has the same theoretical basis as the validating technique
Discriminant validity– a type of construct validity, reflecting the lack of connection between the validated technique and a technique that has a different theoretical basis.
Sometimes this type of validity is called logical validity.
Classification of tests
Test – a short, standardized, most often time-limited task (test) aimed at identifying individual psychological differences.
Systematization of tests
Basis for classification
Types of tests
According to the testing form
By the number of subjects: individual and group
By form of response: oral and written
According to the operating material: blank, object, hardware, computer
By the presence of time restrictions: speed and effectiveness
By the nature of the stimulus material: verbal and non-verbal
Systematization of questionnaires
Questionnaires
biographical questionnaires
Personality questionnaires
personality traits (R. Cattell’s questionnaire “16 personality factors” - 16 – PF, etc.)
typological (Minnesota Multidimensional Personality Inventory - MMPI, G. Eysenck questionnaires, etc.)
motives, interests, attitudes (“List of personal preferences” by A. Edwards, etc.)
states and moods (SAN, etc.) accentual (G. Shmishek’s questionnaire, “Pathocharacterological diagnostic questionnaire” by A. Lichko - PDO), etc.
By shape
group individual written
oral formal computer
CLASSIFICATION OF QUESTIONS
By function
basic (collection of information about the content of the phenomenon under study)
control (checking the sincerity of answers) – lie/sincerity scales
By shape
open (the answer is given in free form)
closed (a question is given a set of answer options)
direct (appealing directly to the subject’s experience)
indirect (appealing to opinions, judgments in which experience and experiences are indirectly manifested)
Questionnaires – a group of questionnaires designed to obtain information that is not directly related to the personal characteristics of the subject.
Biographical questionnaires – a group of questionnaires designed to obtain data about a person’s life history.
Personality questionnaires – a type of questionnaire developed within the framework of a subjective diagnostic approach and aimed at measuring various personality traits.
Lie scale– questions aimed at assessing the subject’s tendency towards socially positive answers (the desire to show oneself in the most favorable light).
Projection - throwing out
Distinctive features:
Global approach to personality assessment
Uncertainty of stimulus material
No restrictions in choice
No assessment of answers as “correct” or “wrong”
Group of techniques Examples
1. Structuring techniques (constitutive) - involve giving subjects a certain meaning to the material, endowing it with some content - “Ink Blots” by G. Rorschach
2. Interpretation techniques (interpretative) – provide for the interpretation of events, situations, images - “Thematic Apperception Test” (TAT), “Children’s Apperception Test” (SAT), S. Rosenzweig’s drawing frustration technique, R. Gilles’ technique
3. Methods of addition (additive) – involve completing the existing beginning of a sentence, story or story - “Completing Sentences” “Completing Stories”
4. Design techniques (constructive) – are based on the creation of a whole from individual parts and scattered fragments “Test of the World”
5. Methods of catharsis (cathartic) – self-expression in conditions of emotionally intense creativity - “Psychodrama”, “Doll Test”
6. Impressive techniques – require choice, preference for some stimuli over others “M. Luscher Color Preference Test”, “Psychogeometric Test”
7. Expressive (graphic) techniques – are based on an independent depiction of objects, people, animals, etc. “Drawing of a person”, “Drawing of a family” (KRS - Kmnetic drawing of a family), “Tree test”, “House-tree-person” (HPD), Non-existent animal”, “ Self-portrait"
Projective techniques – a set of techniques aimed at studying personality, developed within the framework of the projective diagnostic approach.
Projection is an unconscious process during which a subject imparts some of his ideas, views, desires, emotions and character traits to others.
By duration
longitudinal periodic
single (one-time)
By purpose
selective continuous
According to the degree of standardization
structured free
By purpose
diagnostic
clinical
According to the form of communication
free
standardized
partially standardized
A type of conversation is an interview that has a clear plan and form of information processing.
Content analysis
Content analysis – a method for identifying and assessing the characteristics of information contained in texts and speech messages, as well as in products of human activity.
Content analysis – quantitative and qualitative analysis of documentary sources that allow us to study the products of human activity.
Based on the principle of repetition - the frequency of use of various semantic units.
It can be used only after there is a sufficient amount of material for analysis.
In PD, content analysis is most often used as an auxiliary method or procedure for processing data obtained from other studies.
Content analysis (content analysis) – frequency-statistical analysis of series of events based on the principle of repeatability.
Includes:
identification of a system of supporting concepts (categories of analysis)
finding their indicators - words, phrases, judgments, etc. (units of analysis)
statistical data processing
Used:
when analyzing documentary and material sources (highlighting the frequency of use of various semantic units)
as an auxiliary method for analyzing speech messages of subjects during diagnosis using projective techniques, questionnaires, conversations
Pedagogical diagnostics
Pedagogical diagnostics – a set of monitoring and evaluation techniques aimed at solving problems of optimizing the educational process, differentiating students, as well as improving curricula and methods of pedagogical influence.
Pedagogical diagnostics
(the term was proposed in 1968 by K. Ingenkamp)
Purpose ------ Functions
optimization of the learning process
Information
Estimated
Corrective
Types------- Methods
initial
current (corrective)
summarizing (final)
Tests of educational achievements (broadly focused, specialized, narrowly focused)
Observation
Analysis of child activity products
Pedagogical diagnostics ≠ diagnostics in the field of education
Pedagogical diagnostics ≠ pedagogical monitoring
(monitoring – from English control, observation)
FIRST YEAR OF LIFE
Typically, psychodiagnostic studies of children begin after 1.5 - 2 months.
There are several methods for studying the psychophysical development of children in the first year of life: Gesell Development Scale, Denver Screening Methodology (DDST), etc. Among domestic methods, it is fashionable to note the works of G.V. Pantyukhina, K.N. Pechora, E.L. Frukht, O .V.Bazhenova, L.T. Zhurba, E.M. Mastyukova.
Both domestic and foreign methods are built on the same principle: they include a set of tasks aimed at studying the motor, speech, cognitive, and social spheres. As age increases, these tasks become more difficult. The results of the child's study are assessed by comparing them with the standard.
In practice, the following methods of examining children in the first year of life are usually used (O.V. Bazhenova, L.T. Zhurba, E.M. Mastyukova).
Children over 8 months. can be examined on a special table; older children can be seated at a special children's table or on the mother's lap. Children should be in a state of active wakefulness, healthy, dry, well-fed, not irritated, not tired.
1. First, contact is established with the child, his characteristics are noted. Particular attention is paid to the nature of the baby’s contact with the mother.
2. Determine the state of the motor sphere: the possibility and quality of control of the position of the head, arms, posture when sitting and walking; in children over 8 months of age, attention is paid to the development of stepping movements.
3.Then the development of sensory reactions is determined: A) the nature of tracking and fixations is studied. To do this, a bright toy 7-10 cm in size is moved in front of the child’s eyes at a distance of 30 cm in horizontal, vertical, and circular directions.
In children from 2 to 4.5 months, special attention is paid to stopping tracking when toys stop in the child’s field of vision. To study the possibility of tracking the invisible trajectory of an object and its alternate appearance in certain parts of space, special experimental techniques are used.
B) Next, they check the presence of a reaction to an object disappearing from the field of view, the ability to find a sound source by turning the head and eyes, the ability to listen to speech, as well as find a hidden object and consider two objects at the same time.
5. Determine the state of development of actions with objects. To do this, offer a child over 4 months a rattle and evaluate the grip, its speed and accuracy, finger movements, duration of holding, and the nature of the manipulations. Children over 8 months are then given a second rattle and assessed for grasping and holding two rattles.
Particular attention should be paid to the development of the child’s actions with objects involved in the feeding process: bottle, spoon, cup. Special attention is paid to developing interest in objects that can be grasped with only two fingers - the index and thumb.
6. Determine the state of development of the method of interaction with an adult: find out the presence of emotional and visual contacts between mother and child, try to establish this kind of contact between the child and the researcher. They find out from the mother whether she understands more clearly the child’s wishes, what the child’s cry tells her, whether there are pauses in it for an adult’s reaction, whether the child’s cry is modulated; what type of games exist in the repertoire of their communication, does the child look into the eyes of the mother, manipulating toys in her presence and under her control, does he understand elementary instructions expressed by facial expressions and gestures, special tag words and some other words and, finally, speak or with a pointing gesture.
During the examination, the state of development of emotional and vocal reactions is determined, the nature and expression of the smile is noted, and the situations in which it most often appears are analyzed. Pay attention to the nature of negative emotional manifestations.
A psychological study of the mental development of a child in the first year of life traditionally ends with the drawing up of a conclusion about his condition.
EARLY AGE
To successfully solve the diagnostic problems of studying young children, certain examination tactics are required. First of all, it should be noted that the results of the examination will be of value only in cases where friendly contact was established with the child and he was sufficiently interested in completing the task. The tactics of conducting the examination are largely determined by the age and condition of the child, which has a significant impact on his productivity during the examination. Therefore, it is important to focus on the general background of the child’s mood and on creating a relationship of trust between him and the researcher.
The main goal of the psychological and pedagogical study of a young child is to obtain data characterizing:
Cognitive processes;
Emotional-volitional sphere;
Pre-speech and speech development;
Motor development.
Before you begin diagnosing a child’s mental development, you should definitely make sure that he does not have gross hearing or vision defects.
The most difficult is the pedagogical hearing examination of children 2–3 years of age. This is due to the fact that sounds gradually cease to be unconditional signals for the child.
To get a reaction in the form of turning the head towards the sound source, it is necessary to present unusual signals or motivate the child to respond. Drums, pipes, and voices of varying volumes are used as a sound source. Sound stimuli are presented behind the child's back at a distance of 6 m. Visual perception of speech should be excluded.
A normal reaction to sound at an early age may be turning the head towards the source of the sound, a vocal response to a whisper from a distance of 6 m.
Symptoms of decreased vision at an early age include: using the mouth as an additional tactile organ; bringing objects or pictures close to the eyes, ignoring small objects or pictures close to the eyes, ignoring small objects or small details depicted in pictures.
What is important is not so much the result of the task as the ability to organize activities to complete the task. The main parameters for assessing cognitive activity at an early age can be considered:
Acceptance of the task (the child’s consent to complete the proposed task);
Ways to complete the task:
with the help of an adult
independent implementation after training
Learning ability during the examination (i.e., the child’s transition from inappropriate actions to adequate ones indicates his potential capabilities)
Attitude to the result of their activities (normally developing children are characterized by interest in their activities and their final result. A child with intellectual disabilities is indifferent to what he does and to the result obtained),
When selecting methods for psychological and pedagogical study of young children, it is necessary to proceed from the patterns of age-related development. The tasks are offered taking into account a gradual increase in the level of difficulty - from the simplest to the most complex.
The tasks involve simple movement of objects in space, where spatial dependencies are identified, the correlation of objects by shape, size, color. A special stage in diagnostics are tasks to determine the level of development of visual correlation. The main methods for studying the cognitive sphere of young children are the “Seguin Board” (2 – 3 forms), folding a pyramid (from balls, from rings), disassembling and folding a nesting doll (two-part, three-part), paired pictures (2 – 4), cut pictures (from 2 – 3 parts).
Speech therapy examination is carried out according to the traditional scheme, taking into account the stages of child speech development.
Tasks aimed at diagnosing the cognitive sphere can also be used to diagnose the characteristics of the child’s emotional and volitional manifestations. When observing a child’s activity in an experiment, pay attention to the following indicators:
General mood background (adequate, depressive, anxious, euphoric, etc.), activity, presence of cognitive interests, manifestations of excitability, disinhibition;
Contact (desire to cooperate with adults).
Emotional response to encouragement and approval.
Emotional response to comments and demands.
Reacting to difficulties and failures of activity.
The parameters for assessing the development of general motor skills are based on age-specific standards for the development of the motor sphere in children.
The level of development of fine motor skills can be assessed by completing tasks such as building a tower, completing tasks with boards, fastening buttons, and drawing.
A psychodiagnostic study of the mental development of a child of a given age period ends with the drawing up of a conclusion, which contains generalized data reflecting the development of his emotional, cognitive, speech and motor spheres, characteristics of the psychological structure of individual actions and systems of actions for completing tasks, as well as the observed characterological characteristics of the child.
Personal readiness.
Includes the formation of a child’s readiness to accept a new social position - the position of a schoolchild who has a range of rights and responsibilities. This personal readiness is expressed in the child’s attitude towards school, educational activities, teachers, and himself.
Psychodiagnostics of conditions
Diagnostic methods:
Hardware methods for assessing conditions;
Observation – audiovisual diagnosis of conditions
Projective techniques (methods of Usher, Rosenzweig, DDH, “Non-existent animal”, “Hand Test” by E. Wagner, “Children’s Anxiety Test by R. Temmle, M. Dorki, V. Amen, etc.)
Questionnaires (SAN, A. Bass – A. Darkey questionnaire, Philips School Anxiety Questionnaire, etc.)
Diagnosis of creativity
Verbal and non-verbal tests by J. Guilford
Verbal and figure tests by E. Torrance
J. Guilford proposed the concept of creativity - a universal creative ability. According to his ideas, creativity is an independent factor, independent of the level of intelligence.
J. Guilford identified several parameters of creativity (creative ability):
Ability to identify and pose problems;
Ability to generate a large number of ideas;
Ability to generate a variety of ideas (flexibility);
The ability to respond outside the box, to establish unusual associations (originality);
The ability to improve an object by adding details;
Ability to solve problems.
Based on these theoretical premises, aptitude tests were developed. In total, the TV method has 14 subtests (4 for non-verbal creativity, 10 for verbal creativity).
Among them are the following tasks:
List as many ways as possible to use each item (for example, jars);
Draw the given objects using the following set of shapes: circle, triangle, rectangle, trapezoid.
Methodology of E.P. Torrens designed for people of different ages - from preschoolers to adults. The methodology includes 12 subtests, grouped into three blocks: verbal, visual and audio. They diagnose, respectively, verbal creative thinking, visual creative thinking and verbal-sound creative thinking.
The Torrance technique includes several stages:
1. The subject is given tasks to find 5 words from a meaningless sequence of letters. He must find the only correct solution and formulate a rule leading to the solution of the problem.
2. The subject is offered story pictures. He must list all possible circumstances that led to the situation depicted in the picture and give a forecast of its further development.
3. The subject is offered various objects and is asked to list all possible ways of using them.
When studying the creative abilities and imagination of children and adolescents with disorders. These techniques are not used in the classical version, but their modifications are widely used: “Complete the figure” by Torrance, “Cut pictures”, “Draw the whole” (Kataeva, Strebeleva). When studying schoolchildren with int. Tasks for composing a story based on the proposed words, drawing illustrations for this story (O.V. Borovik) can be used.
Methodology "SAN"
TAT, SAT
Sociometry
Method for diagnosing intragroup relations (sociometry and its modifications)
The methodology for diagnosing interpersonal and intergroup relations “Sociometry” by J. Moreno allows one to study the typology of social behavior of people in group activities and the socio-psychological compatibility of members of a particular group.
Goal: diagnostics of intra-group relations, emotional connections in the group.
A team interacting together for at least 6 months is diagnosed.
Based on the research results, a sociogram is filled out:
boys girls
From the center – 1 – stars (4 or more choices), 2 – preferred, 3 – accepted, 3 – rejected.
“DDC” technique
Methodology “Drawing a Person”
One of the most common tests in the practice of psychologists is the “Draw a Person” test and its variants. The main option was proposed by K. Makhover based on the test by F. Goodenough, who used a drawing of a person to assess mental development. In the test, the subject is asked to draw a person with a pencil on a piece of paper; After completing the drawing, you are asked to draw a person of the opposite sex. This is followed by a question regarding the figures drawn - gender, age, habits, etc. When interpreting, we proceed from the assumption that in a person’s drawing the subject expresses his self, and his features can be determined according to the proposed system of criteria. Much attention is paid to how individual details of the figure are drawn (eyes, hands, etc.), their proportions; they are interpreted symbolically as the embodiment of attitudes towards certain aspects of life.
D. Wechsler's test
R. Amthauer test
SHTUR
GORBOV'S METHOD
Purpose: assessment of switching and distribution of attention.
Test description
The study is carried out using special forms on which there are 25 red and 24 black numbers. The test subject must first find the black numbers in ascending order, then the red numbers in descending order.
The third task is to alternately search for black numbers in ascending order and red numbers in descending order. The main indicator is execution time.
The first two tasks are completed using one form, the third task - on a different form.
Test instructions
For adults: “There are 25 red and 24 black numbers on your form. You must find the black numbers in an ascending sequence (from 1 to 24) and then the red numbers in a descending sequence (from 25 to 1). Each time you find the required number, write down the letter corresponding to that number.”
The task completion time is recorded.
Second instruction: “Take the second form. Now you have to find the red numbers in descending order and the black numbers in ascending order simultaneously, alternately. For example: red number 25, black number 1, red number 24, black number 2 and so on.
Letters corresponding to red numbers are written in one row (above), and letters corresponding to black numbers are written in another (bottom), thus producing two rows of letters.”
Children's version: “On this table, the red numbers from 1 to 24 and the black numbers from 1 to 25 are not in order. You must show and name the black numbers in ascending order, and the red ones in descending order at the same time, in turn: 1 - black, 24 - red, 2 - black, 23 - red and so on.”
Processing test results
Lecture 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS
Plan:
1. The concept of psychological diagnosis.
2. Psychological forecast.
3. Psychodiagnostic conclusion.
Concept psychological diagnosis refers to the least developed in modern psychology and does not have a clear definition. In foreign psychology, this concept inherently does not have an independent meaning, and psychological diagnostics is understood as the identification of the psychological characteristics of an individual using special methods.
The concept of “diagnosis” is widely used in various fields of science and technology. “A diagnosis, no matter where it is made - in medicine, in technology, in management, in practical psychology, is always a search, identification of the hidden cause of the detected problem, most often in conditions of multiple cause-and-effect relationships" (V.I. Voitko, Yu.Z. Gilbukh).
In Russian science, he was the first to raise the question of the essence and specificity of psychological diagnosis. L.S. Vygotsky. In the 1920s, when the practice of pedological counseling began to actively develop, two trends emerged: towards the substitution of a psychological diagnosis with a medical one and towards a purely empirical description of the picture of the external manifestations of a child’s troubles. These tendencies of L.S. Vygotsky considered them to be equally unlawful and dangerous. Vygotsky saw the only scientific way to construct a psychological diagnosis in the context of the stages and patterns of entire mental ontogenesis, in the study of the mechanisms of formation of established difficulties. In the scope of psychological diagnosis, Vygotsky included the entirety of the development process, meaning by this, first of all, a positive characteristic of the child’s mental development, his qualitative uniqueness at this stage, as well as a characteristic of the totality of conditions that determine it.
To understand the specifics of a psychological diagnosis, let’s compare it with the concept of a medical diagnosis. The main thing in a medical diagnosis is the definition and classification of the existing manifestations of the disease, which are identified through their connection with the pathophysiological mechanisms typical for a given syndrome. In a psychological diagnosis, unlike a medical one, it is necessary to identify in each individual case why these manifestations are found in the behavior of the subject, what are their causes and consequences.
The concepts of clinical and psychological diagnosis are considered to be the most developed in modern psychodiagnostics. A. Levitsky considers the main tasks of clinical-psychological diagnosis to be:
Description of behavioral disorders that manifest themselves in the subject in his professional, family life, communication with people, as well as those discovered during the study;
Clarification of the underlying mental dysfunctions in the field of motivation and cognitive processes;
Determining the significance of psychological mechanisms in the genesis of existing disorders, namely: violations are caused by situational or personal factors; to what extent personality disorders are determined by organic factors, and to what extent by psychological ones.
At the moment, the term “diagnosis” is most often used in relation to the result of diagnostic activity. A psychological diagnosis as a result of activity is a logical conclusion of an examining person or group of people about the state of the object of psychodiagnosis. Such a logical conclusion is aimed at describing and clarifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person in order to assess their current state, allows one to predict the future state of the client in certain conditions and formulate recommendations for providing him with psychological assistance.
Making a diagnosis involves preliminary identifying a set of signs (symptoms). However, their knowledge does not guarantee the correctness of the diagnosis, since a clear correspondence between a set of symptoms and the corresponding causes is rare.
There are two types of diagnosis:
1 – diagnosis based on the presence or absence of any sign. In this case, the data obtained during diagnosis about the individual characteristics of the psyche of the subject are correlated with the norm or some criterion.
2 – diagnosis, which allows one to find the subject’s place among other people based on the severity of certain qualities. This requires comparisons of data obtained during diagnostics within the sample being examined, ranking of subjects according to the degree of representation of certain indicators, introducing an indicator of high, medium and low levels of development of the characteristics being studied by relating them to the criterion.
Depending on the goals of the diagnostic work, a psychological diagnosis can be transferred to another specialist (teacher, doctor, social worker, court expert, etc.), who himself decides on its use in his work. The diagnosis can be accompanied by recommendations for development or correction and passed on to the child’s parents or the person being examined. In addition, based on the diagnosis, the psychologist himself can plan correctional work, which is the main component of the activity of a practical psychologist.
Among the qualities of a psychological diagnosis there are: right– adequacy, compliance with the real state of the subject, as well as specific conditions for the provision of psychological assistance. Another quality of a psychological diagnosis is timeliness– is manifested in its speed and efficiency, which is especially valuable in the situation of making a diagnosis during a consultation. Communication value diagnosis - the third quality - is characterized by the possibility of transmitting psychodiagnostic information to the applicant, who is usually a non-specialist. Labor intensity– a quality that is determined by the level of professional training of the diagnostician, the availability of psychodiagnostic tools at his disposal and the characteristics of a particular case. The optimal complexity of a psychological diagnosis for a diagnostician reflects the adequacy of his own capabilities.
Psychological diagnosis is often accompanied by erroneous actions. The causes of diagnostic errors are related to data collection and processing. Errors associated with information collection include:
- observation errors(observation of traits in a distorted qualitative or quantitative form);
- registration errors(the emotional coloring of the entries in the protocol, indicating more about the psychologist’s attitude towards the subject, rather than about the characteristics of his behavior);
- instrumental errors(arise as a result of inability to use equipment, measuring equipment, etc.).
Main errors in data processing and interpretation:
- the “primary impression” effect– error based on overestimation of the diagnostic value of primary information;
- attribution error– attributing to the subject traits that he does not have, or considering unstable traits as stable;
- false cause errors– a false reason for the state of the psychodiagnostic object is put forward and confirmed;
- cognitive radicalism– a tendency to overestimate the importance of working hypotheses and a reluctance to look for better solutions;
- cognitive conservatism– extremely careful formulation of hypotheses.
A psychological diagnosis is not a conclusion about a mental illness or a predisposition to a particular mental illness.
A psychological diagnosis is the final result of a psychological examination to clarify and describe the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person in order to assess his current state, predict further development and develop recommendations arising from the objectives of the examination.
Psychological diagnosis is the final result of a psychologist’s activity, aimed at identifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person with the aim of:
Assessments of their current state,
Forecast of further development,
2. information exchange function
3. Statistical data collection function (allows you to see trends in the appearance, development, reduction or increase in the number of children with disabilities, etc.). Enables planning of future assistance activities
4. function related to scientific research Types: - symptomatic (diagnostic conclusion based on a symptom) - syndromic - nosological (medical diagnosis. Includes information about etiology)
Psychological diagnoses: -phenomenological diagnosis (judgment of what ego state a person is in by how he relives the events of his past)
Typological diagnosis (allows you to determine the personality of the subject to a certain type. In special psychology, a diagnosis is used that is based on the typology of dysontogenesis)
Functional diagnosis (based on the nosological diagnosis, but not limited to it. Includes a socio-psychological context. Focused on quality care and based on an integrated interdisciplinary approach.
The introduction of PMPK into the work creates the prerequisites for an interested exchange of information and increasing the efficiency of cooperation among commission members).
Korobeinikov identifies 3 levels of FD:
1. Clinical and psychopathological level
a. Assessment of real pathogenic factors in the formation of the cognitive and behavioral sphere of personality
b. Gives qualification and differentiation of affective disorders as disorders of the primary or secondary levels
c. Determination of leading and accompanying symptoms in the context of disorders of socio-psychological adaptation of the individual
2. Clinical and psychological:
a. Differential diagnosis of mild forms of mental development disorders based on pathopsychological and psychometric criteria
b. Clarification of the genesis of disorders of the cognitive and emotional-volitional sphere based on the analysis of expert psychological data and features of the social situation of the child’s development
c. Establishment of qualitative features of mental activity both in operational and motivational characteristics
d. Obtaining a psychometric assessment of the level of intellectual development and the structure of the intelligence profile
e. Assessment of the quality of socio-psychological adaptation of the individual and the probable mechanisms of its violations in the context of a specific case
3. Psychological and pedagogical level:
a. Determining the form of manifestation of school maladjustment
b. Reasons for school maladjustment
c. The nature and severity of difficulties in mastering the curriculum
d. Determining the scope of conflict behavior and the nature of typical forms of affective response
e. Assessing the effectiveness of corrective techniques
The practice of using various psychodiagnostic tests (methods) to study personality is inextricably linked with the concept "psychological diagnosis".
The concept of “diagnosis” (recognition) is widely used in various fields of science and technology, because the task of recognition, determining the essence and characteristics of certain phenomena is not considered the prerogative of medicine.
In the literature you can find many definitions of the concept of “psychological diagnosis”. Medical understanding diagnosis, firmly connecting it with a disease, a deviation from the norm, was also reflected in the definition of this concept in psychological science. In this understanding, psychological diagnosis- this is always the identification of the hidden cause of the discovered trouble. Also, some foreign psychologists proposed using the term “diagnosis” in psychology exclusively to “name” any disorders or disorders (Rosenzweig, 1949, etc.).
Such views lead to an undue narrowing of the scope of psychological diagnosis; everything that is associated with identifying and taking into account individual psychological differences in the norm falls out of it. The most extensive, historically established area of research is arbitrarily pulled out of psychological diagnostics.
The concept of diagnosis is key in diagnosis. Its essence reveals the specifics of diagnostics as a special sphere of human activity, aimed at studying not only the external, but also the internal (cause-and-effect) essence of an object, recognizing a particular concrete phenomenon on the basis of abstract knowledge about the general necessary and essential. A diagnosis is a special type of knowledge, since it reflects a specialist’s ideas about the characteristics of the condition and functioning of a particular person.
The area of psychological diagnosis is individual psychological differences, both in normal and pathological conditions.
A psychological diagnosis is the final result of a psychologist’s activity to clarify the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person, assess their current state and predict further development. As a rule, a psychological diagnosis takes the form of a structured description of a complex of interrelated mental properties of a person - abilities, style traits (temperament and character), motivational characteristics - with an explanation of the identified contradictions and determination of the meaning of the data obtained in a holistic dynamic picture of the personality.
The subject of psychological diagnosis is the establishment of individual psychological differences in normal and pathological conditions. The most important element of a psychological diagnosis is to clarify in each individual case why these manifestations are found in the behavior of the subject, what their causes and consequences are. As psychological knowledge becomes more enriched, the “etiological” element in a psychological diagnosis will probably not be as significant as it is at present, at least in current, practical work. Today, as a rule, having established certain individual psychological characteristics by means of psychodiagnostics, the researcher is deprived of the opportunity to indicate their causes and place in the personality structure.
Depending on the tasks and the corresponding breadth and psychodiagnostic research, we can distinguish three steps or level of development diagnosis, which in general terms were first described by Russian psychologists A. A. Nevsky and L. S. Vygotsky (1936) and represent successively deepening stages of cognition.
Symptomatic(or empirical) diagnosis, limited to the statement of certain features or symptoms, on the basis of which practical conclusions are directly drawn. Such a diagnosis has the right to exist as a working, indicative moment in the study, since it does not reveal the causes and prospects for the development of the detected phenomena; and in practice it is used to solve selection problems: screening, selection, differentiation of individuals on some basis - for example, to select individuals with a high level of suggestibility into psychotherapeutic groups using imperative suggestion.
Etiological diagnosis, taking into account not only certain symptoms, but also the reasons that cause them. Here the diagnostician must answer questions about how it developed, through what mechanism it arose, and what causes the identified symptom or complex of psychological characteristics.
Highest level - typological diagnosis, which consists in determining the place and meaning of the data obtained in a holistic, dynamic picture of the individual. According to L. S. Vygotsky, not every study can be considered diagnostic. The latter presupposes a ready-made, established system of concepts, with the help of which the diagnosis itself is determined, and a particular phenomenon is subsumed under a general concept. It also very accurately characterizes the sometimes overlooked differences that exist today between psychological measurement and psychological diagnosis. “The psychological dimension refers to the area of identifying a symptom; diagnosis refers to the final judgment about the phenomenon as a whole, revealing itself in these symptoms, not directly perceptible and assessed on the basis of the study, comparison and interpretation of these symptoms” (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 313) .
According to L. S. Vygotsky, the diagnosis should always take into account the complex structure of the personality. The diagnosis is inextricably linked with the prognosis. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the content of the prognosis and diagnosis coincide, but the prognosis is based on the ability to understand “the internal logic of the self-movement of the development process so much that, on the basis of the past and present, it outlines the path of development.” It is recommended to divide the forecast into separate periods and resort to long-term repeated observations. It takes into account the close interconnection of individual substructures of the psyche, its multi-level functional systems working together, implying that any external signs cannot be isolated and limited to the characteristics of individual mental functions.
The system-forming unit of a typological diagnosis is a psychological syndrome - a stable set of signs and symptoms corresponding to the same phenomenon, united by a common cause. Each psychological syndrome is distinguished by a unique set of specific symptoms that appear in a certain sequence, have a hierarchical structure and an external form of manifestation. The signs included in the structure of the syndrome can be eclectically combined with other symptoms, leading to its complication or change. It is possible to combine “small” syndromes into “large” ones, which have high typological specificity and correlate specific symptom complexes with certain psychological phenomena. This diagnosis is based on phenomenological typologies, and diagnostic categories are formed according to external characteristics: from constitutional and portrait to behavioral and activity.
The diagnosis and prognosis must take into account not only the personality characteristics that have found their place in the theoretical model. An analysis of environmental conditions and the specificity of a particular situation is necessary. It is impossible to determine, for example, suitability for a particular activity without the requirements for it. The characterization of personality traits outside of social conditions is devoid of foundation and “hangs in the air.” “We can understand what a “lazy boy” is if we know who exactly, in what social conditions, to whom and on what grounds gave such a definition” (Obukhovsky, 1981).
N. Sandberg and L. Tyler (Sandberg and Tyler, 1962) identify three levels of diagnostic conclusions, which coincide in essence with the levels of diagnosis in L. S. Vygotsky.
One of the most developed theoretical schemes of psychological diagnosis remain today, proposed by the famous Polish psychologistJanusz Reikowski (Reykowski, 1966), who identifies four main directions in the work of a psychodiagnostician:
Carrying out a diagnosis of activity, behavior, i.e. description, analysis and characterization of the characteristics of the behavior of the subject.
Carrying out a diagnosis of activity regulation processes or studying the mental processes through which activity is carried out.
Carrying out a diagnosis of regulatory mechanisms, mechanisms of mental processes on which their course depends - diagnostics of systems of nervous connections.
Diagnosis of the genesis of regulatory mechanisms or the answer to the question of how and under what conditions the psyche of a given individual was formed.
Activity is understood as a process aimed at a specific result.
When diagnosing activity, Reikowski suggests distinguishing between its two most general aspects: instrumental (quality, speed and adequacy of actions) and relationship aspect , i.e. those characteristics that express the subject’s attitude to the actions he performs, to the environment and to himself.
The task of psychological diagnosis is not only to identify which actions are going wrong, but also what actions the individual can be successful in.
To obtain systematized characteristics of activity, it is proposed to use a system of main roles performed by a person in society.
Reikovsky notes that in clinical diagnostics, the relational aspect is most often taken into account, and in professional diagnostics, taking into account the instrumental aspect is of greatest value. In order to answer the question of why actions are not proceeding correctly, a diagnosis of regulatory processes is necessary.
In the diagnosis of regulation processes, Reikowski also conventionally distinguishes two classes of phenomena: processes of the instrumental type and processes of the relational type.
TO processes such as instrumental There are three groups of regulatory processes, each of which performs its own function: orientational, intellectual and executive. Diagnosis of orientation processes includes an assessment of the adequacy of perception, the ability to comprehend phenomena and form concepts. Smart Features determine the creation of activity programs, their diagnosis is associated with assessing the effectiveness of planning and problem solving. TO executive functions include psychomotor and verbal reactions.
Under relationship type processes Reikowski understands emotional and motivational processes. At diagnostics of emotional processes determine the degree of correspondence between the characteristics of the situation and the characteristics of emotional reactions in terms of duration, strength, sign and content of emotions. Diagnosis of motivational processes- this is an assessment of the type and intensity of motives that prompt an individual to act.
Regulatory processes are carried out thanks to complex systems of neural connections (dynamic stereotypes) developed throughout a person’s life. These regulatory mechanisms ensure stability and organization of human behavior. To describe the mechanisms of regulation, the author proposes to distinguish two classes of dynamic schemes : operational (systems of skills, abilities, knowledge) and dynamic (personal manifestations). Personality characterized by Reikowski as a special system through which human behavior acquires constancy, specificity and orientation towards certain goals. The purpose of a personality diagnosis is not only to determine the sources of pathology, but also the areas of effective functioning.
In diagnosing the genesis of regulatory mechanisms, Reikovsky pays special attention to the study "history of didactic processes" individual, important for the analysis of acquired knowledge and skills, and also recommends carefully studying the “history of educational processes”, in which systems of expectations, needs and relationships are formed. When analyzing the “history of didactic processes,” one should rely on the chronology of education, and ordering the “history of educational influences” is possible during a detailed anamnestic interview.
According to the method of justification In modern psychological literature, clinical and statistical psychological diagnoses are distinguished. They are based on the specifics and decision-making criteria. In the first case, the diagnosis is based on identifying the qualitative side of the individual’s psychological functioning in the personological aspect, which constitutes its specificity. In the second, it is based on a quantitative assessment of the level of development or formation of the parameters of a specific psychological sphere (high - low level, meets - does not meet the requirements).
According to the nature of the psychological examination There are implicit and rational psychological diagnoses. Implicit A psychological diagnosis is often defined as an intuitive, unconsciously obtained conclusion (conclusion) about the state of the mental system, which determines the characteristics of human behavior and activity. The recognition process occurs on the basis of an unconscious analysis of one’s own impressions and external signs. According to V. Cherny, such “intuitive diagnostics” is inherent in every person, since behind it lies a personal idea, formed in individual experience, of how external data, contextual conditions and people’s behavior are combined with each other in typical cases. However, such implicit diagnosis also has a downside. Considering that the perceptual-cognitive sphere of a specialist usually undergoes the greatest transformation, standards and professional cliches often appear in the structure of his professional consciousness, predetermining the attitude towards a person (student), goals, character and tactics of interaction with him.
In the field of teaching, such professional stereotypes, firmly established in the minds of teachers, are well described. They often manifest themselves in so-called label diagnoses. Today the most popular of them are: “lazy”, “loser”, “indomitable”, “difficult”, “incapable”, “problematic”, “aggressive”, “inhibited”, etc. Most often, such “diagnoses” are not based on specific facts and objectively observed phenomena, but on the teacher’s subjective assessments of the student’s behavior and performance. With rare exceptions, motivational and other characteristics of the individual’s inner world remain unknown. The consequence of such stereotyping is a decrease in the adequacy of social pedagogical perception and the construction of an implicit diagnosis not at the level of intuition and ordinary psychology, but at the level of professional consciousness, which has a direct impact on the educational process.
Rational diagnosis- this is a scientifically based conclusion, often independent of the specialist’s previous experience and his theoretical preferences, which is based on precisely established and empirically confirmed diagnostic data. Rational diagnostics are based only on reproducible facts.
According to the method of logical construction exist:
1. Direct substantiated psychological diagnosis when there is a set of symptoms or a combination of diagnostic signs characteristic of a specific psychological phenomenon.
For example, reduced learning ability is characterized by specific features of the cognition process, manifested at the perceptual and mental levels: a utilitarian attitude to cognitive tasks, superficiality, disunity of acquired knowledge, inability to independently master rational methods of action and weak pliability of their correction. And for communicative incompetence characterized by the inability to listen, establish psychological contact with others, express one’s feelings or one’s position in dialogue, recognize non-verbal signals of a communication partner, participate in teamwork, etc.
2. Indirect diagnosis, obtained by excluding less probable features or highlighting the most probable of them.
3. Diagnosis based on exposure results (catamnesis) when the diagnosis is established conditionally, on the basis of a favorable result of providing psychological assistance in a given specific diagnostic situation.
A.F. Anufriev, based on an analysis of the literature devoted to the diagnosis, gives the following understanding. A psychological diagnosis is the result of a specialist’s psychodiagnostic activity. In a brief, succinct form it means: (1) the current state of the mental system or its individual indicators, (2) determining the characteristics of the behavior and activity of a particular person, (3) presented in the form of a diagnostic category (concept) or statement (inference), (4 ) on the basis of which it is possible to predict further development (future state) and (5) formulate recommendations.
A.F. Anufriev points out that a specific description of the stage of the psychodiagnostic process is psychodiagnosticogram, containing an algorithm for testing diagnostic hypotheses, indicating methodological techniques and assessment tools and creating the necessary conditions for the implementation of each stage of the diagnostic process. The use of psychodiagnosticograms in establishing a diagnosis makes it possible to increase its effectiveness by reducing the psychodiagnostic procedure and the accuracy of diagnosis.
In order to create a diagnostic diagram, you can follow following diagram 27:
Characterize features of mental processes, implementing activities and behavior. In this case, diagnostics should be directed to cognitive(adequacy of perception, ability to comprehend information; success in planning activities and making decisions), affective(direction, content, strength and duration of emotions and emotional states in certain situations) and conative(psychomotor and verbal reactions as executive functions; content and strength of motivational, stimulating processes) spheres mental activity. Modern diagnostics has a rich arsenal of various reliable methods for diagnosing cognitive mental processes, emotional and motivational characteristics, as well as the psychomotor sphere. In this case, methods of objective, subjective and projective approaches can be applied.
Reveal mechanisms of regulation of mental processes and their genesis at the individual (neurodynamic characteristics) and personal (focus on specific goals) level. Regulatory processes are carried out thanks to complex systems of neural connections (dynamic stereotypes) developed throughout a person’s life. These dynamic stereotypes or stable chains of neural connections appearVsystem of skills - abilities - knowledge conditioned by the history of training, and inpersonality structure, conditioned by the history of upbringing, shaping the needs, expectations and relationships of a person.
As a result training and education on an individual basis ( energy potential, properties of the nervous system and related functionality) style features are formed ( temperament or character manifest themselves in the style of behavior in general or in socially typical situations), capabilities And focus personality. Diagnostics of these characteristics can also be implemented by various methodological means. However, a special place among them should be occupied by the biographical research method and the genetic method of interpreting diagnostic data.
Reveal how manifest themselves in human behavior and activitiesdetected characteristics. It is known that the characteristics being diagnosed may not be manifested or may manifest themselves differently in behavior and activities. At the same time, one should evaluate quality, speed and adequacy of actions, and attitudea person to the actions he performs, to the environment and to himself. In this case, you can use objective and semantic methods or the method of expert judges and conversations.
Typological diagnostics in combination with an ideographic approach 28. At the final stage of diagnosis, a working model of the case being studied is created, in which specific peculiarities people presented in integrity and formulated in terms that allow accurate and reasonable reveal the psychological essence of the phenomenon, its structure. According to the diagnosis theory of L.S. Vygotsky “the whole variety of individual situations can be reduced to a certain number of typical situations...”. However, it should be remembered that the same property manifests itself differently in behavior depending on the situation and attitude towards it - personality construct systems. When analyzing “specific situations in which a certain trait can be detected, one should use information about how this trait is perceived by the person himself, what place it occupies in his subjective hierarchy of personality traits, in which cases he considers it necessary to demonstrate this trait.... Thus Thus,...one can with a certain probability expect its manifestation in many or in some situations.”
The personality structure is both individual-psychological and socio-psychological. The social environment determines the diversity of behavioral manifestations and psychological properties or personality traits should be understood as generalized dispositions (predispositions) or “flexible readiness to act in a certain way. They internally interact with each other and the situation, without predetermining individual actions, but revealing a relatively stable general type of behavior, internal dispositional consistency."
Therefore, diagnosis and prognosis should take into account not only personality traits, but also the specifics of a specific situation and environmental conditions at the present moment and in the process of development. The variety of behavioral manifestations of personality traits can only be specified by analyzing the social situations in which the individual acts and lives.
The formulation of a psychological conclusion, its writing or oral presentation is a complex analytical and synthetic process, during which the diagnostic psychologist must note the results of the study. Despite the fact that there is no generally accepted form of psychological conclusion among psychologists, some recommendations for writing one can be given.
Despite the fact that, in principle, a specialist has freedom to choose the form and procedure for drawing up a psychodiagnostic conclusion, nevertheless, there are certain principles of its compilation:
a) the psychodiagnostic conclusion summarizes the data of the psychodiagnostic procedure, but not the results themselves, but their psychological interpretation and conclusions;
b) the conclusion reflected in the psychodiagnostic conclusion is clear and specific answer to the question posed to the specialist. For the field of education, this may be a designation of the psychological reasons for the failure or indiscipline of students: what is the reason for restlessness or inattention, as well as specific recommendations for eliminating them;
c) the content of the diagnostic conclusion should reflect only the most significant regarding the request psychological reasons or phenomena that can be explained and supplemented based on the need to clarify and better understand the essence of the phenomenon being studied. In this case, in conclusion, a description of the psychological characteristics of the individual is included, emphasizing individual originality a specific person;
d) in form, a diagnostic conclusion can be presented in the form of both explanatory concepts and judgments or inferences. In each case, the terms used should be clarified by referring them to the appropriate theory, for example, “introverted type according to Eysenck” or “introverted type according to Rorschach,” “unsatisfied need for security according to A. Maslow” or “unsatisfied need for love according to C. Horney ";
e) in case of detection of various kinds of deviations (changes, deficits, delays), the conclusion indicates the intact aspects or possible compensatory mechanisms of the personality;
f) the text of the diagnostic report should not be overloaded with technical details of obtaining and processing data. The most important are: a) phenomenology of identified psychological characteristics and deviations; b) its explanation regarding the formulated request and the purpose of the diagnostic study; c) the possibility of taking into account the identified features in subsequent activities and behavior.
The conclusion based on the results of a psychodiagnostic examination must contain a number of information important for determining the state of mental development of the subject, including:
1. Information about the subject:
Full Name;
age (when examining children - indicating full years and months);
social status (when examining adults - information about education, field of professional activity, position held; for children - information about the type of school, class);
family status (information about the family: complete, incomplete, large, etc.);
medical status and individual characteristics (health group, chronic diseases, disability, left-handedness, injuries, wounds, etc.).
2. Purpose of the survey.
3. A list of methods used and the conditions for conducting the examination (especially if they are unfavorable: poorly ventilated room, poor lighting, noise, etc.).
4. The results of observing the behavior of the subject during the conversation and diagnosis:
emotional and somatic state;
level of motivation and interest in the survey and its results;
degree of independence in completing tasks;
unusual behavioral manifestations.
5. Description of the examination results:
achievements of the subject when performing test tasks (in the context of the purpose of the study);
indicators for which less good results were obtained;
indicators for which low values were obtained and which require correction.
6. Conclusions:
the level of formation of the studied mental formations in accordance with the stated purpose of the examination.
7. Address recommendations. The recommendations of the psychodiagnostician are addressed either to the subject himself, or to the person ordering the examination, or to a psychologist who will further provide psychological support to the subject, determining for him the methods and forms of psychological assistance.
8. Date of writing the report and signature of the psychologist (with a transcript of the surname). The conclusion is completed with the personal signature of the psychodiagnostician and the date of drawing up the conclusion. The personal signature of a psychologist is a unique expression of responsibility for the correctness of the diagnosis and recommendations.
The complexity and variety of types of psychological diagnosis, the variability of the grounds for its formulation create various kinds of obstacles on the way to the correct decision, as well as conditions for the occurrence of various kinds of diagnostic errors.
Analysis of psychodiagnostic errors shows that they main reasons can be divided into two large groups:
1) objective reasons, caused by the difficulties and complexity of the object of psychological knowledge, the specificity of the psychodiagnostic process, the conditions and means of diagnosis, the level of development of science and technology, etc.;
2) subjective reasons, depending on the cognizing subject (his knowledge, experience, personal characteristics, attention, etc.).
According to various sources, objective diagnostic errors account for 30 to 40% of erroneous diagnoses, with the main determinant being the complexity of the object of psychodiagnosis. The mental system is a single whole. As part of a more global system - an organism, it consists of elements and subsystems that function and interact at different levels. On its basis, complex processes occur that determine the state, behavior and activity of a person. That is, a person and, consequently, his psyche cannot be considered in isolation from his environment and social life, which constantly influence him. Thus, the specialist deals not only with mental forms, but also with all the factors accompanying human life.
This circumstance can be supplemented by the fact that the essence and etiology of many psychological phenomena are poorly studied. Their knowledge is complicated by the individual character, originality and atypicality of a particular case, as well as the almost incalculable variability of the characteristics and differences of people. An additional complication is the lack of clear cause-and-effect relationships between the effects and the psychological causes that can cause them.
Another factor in this list is the insufficient level of development of psychodiagnostic methods, which is associated with the absence or limitations of existing measurement and assessment tools, which in some cases do not allow for a reliable interpretation of the data obtained.
Among the subjective sources of diagnostic errors, the most significant are the following.
1. Personal qualities of a specialist. Thus, according to V.S. Yurkevich, “the danger of stereotyping threatens to a greater extent specialists who are very emotionally stable, with an inert type of GNI.” She also notes that personal determination also manifests itself when a specialist makes a decision based on personal, for example, selfish or altruistic interests, often motivated by his own beliefs or considerations. An additional condition is the specificity of perception and processing of information, on the basis of which various diagnostic signs are taken into account and “put to work.”
2. Insufficient level of professional training, when a specialist lacks professional knowledge and skills to solve a diagnostic problem. This leads to the impossibility of adequate consideration of the problem situation and a professional assessment of the problem. In addition, it is important not only to know your subject, but to be more or less fluent in related fields (for example, defectology, speech therapy, pedagogy); it is important to take into account the dynamics of the development of the professional sphere, constantly replenishing and systematizing knowledge throughout the entire professional activity.
3. Insufficient level of development of professional reflection, which reflects the specialist’s lack of awareness of his own actions in solving professional problems and does not allow him to evaluate their success or outline ways for professional growth.
The materials of the study by M. M. Kashapov, who studied the peculiarities of how teachers solve pedagogical problems related to the recognition process, showed that a significant part of teachers (82% of 149 surveyed) are most often unable to analyze and realize their mistakes. While the skill and professionalism of a teacher lies precisely in the ability to competently analyze and evaluate mistakes made, which will help in the future to avoid wrong decisions and actions.
4. Professional experience, which contributes both to the formation of professional qualities and professional consciousness of a specialist, and to the emergence of cliches, patterns of activity, prejudices and stereotypes. Each of the professional areas where diagnostic activities are carried out has its own specific stereotyping and professional cliches. Thus, in psychology, stereotypes are largely formed under the influence of the scientific school that a specialist adheres to and which determines his system of views and beliefs. Pedagogical stereotypes, in turn, are determined by social factors (“a child whose parents are alcoholics is intellectually deficient”), academic performance, discipline of schoolchildren, as well as external attractiveness, gender and even... the name of the student. Such overgeneralizations have a pronounced evaluative nature and contribute to the formation of prejudices and preconceived attitudes. An evaluative, biased attitude contributes to “seeing” only negative, harmful qualities in a child. In this case, the diagnosis of disadvantage becomes a stigma for the student, while compensatory mechanisms and resources for personal growth are not noticed or ignored. The situation can be further aggravated if the teacher not only considers himself an “expert” in his profession, but also an authoritative adult who is “always and in everything right” for the child. “The teaching profession,” wrote L. S. Vygotsky, “imposes indelible typical features on its bearer and creates pathetic figures who act as apostles of walking truth” (Vygotsky L. S., 1983, p. 255).
It is these circumstances that cause modern opposition to psychodiagnostic activity in education, which is increasingly beginning to be viewed from the position of causing harm to the child and violating the safety of his development.
Objective and subjective reasons for erroneous psychological diagnoses raise the question of the quality of psychodiagnostic activity, its success or failure. If we take into account that the meaning of diagnostic activity in practice is the recognition of the real state of the mental system and its elements, the establishment of objectively valid reasons for its functioning, then the concept adequacy diagnosis most fully reflects the leading sign of its quality, characterizing the truth, accuracy and correspondence to reality.
In psychological diagnostics, the criterion of adequacy corresponds to the concept of “validity”. Valid a psychological diagnosis is a reliable conclusion. This correspondence is established in different ways: a) by the presence (coincidence) of the main features characterizing the phenomenon being diagnosed (content validity); b) comparison of information from different sources confirming the existence of certain psychological characteristics (validity of correspondence); c) establishing a relationship between the primary diagnostic results and data obtained after some time (predictive validity); d) checking the results of correctional and developmental work (catamnesis).
Thus, a valid psychological diagnosis is based on two main features: objectivity and reliability. Associated criteria for the quality of a psychological diagnosis, which determine its merits and value of use in practice, are timeliness (efficiency), labor intensity (costs of its formulation - time, moral, psychometric, procedural) and individuality (correspondence to a specific case).
Psychological diagnosis (diagnosis, from the Greek diagnosis - recognition) is the final result of a psychologist’s activity aimed at describing and clarifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person in order to assess their current state, predict further development and develop recommendations determined by the task of a psychodiagnostic examination. The medical understanding of diagnosis, firmly linking it with illness, a deviation from the norm, was also reflected in the definition of this concept in psychology. In this understanding, a psychological diagnosis is always the identification of the hidden cause of the detected trouble. Such views (for example, in the works of S. Rosenzweig) lead to an undue narrowing of the subject of psychological diagnosis; everything that is associated with identifying and taking into account individual psychological differences in the norm falls out of it. Psychological diagnosis is not limited to a statement, but necessarily includes prediction and development of recommendations arising from the analysis of the entire set of data obtained during the examination in accordance with its objectives. The subject of psychological diagnosis is the establishment of individual psychological differences in both normal and pathological conditions. The most important element of a psychological diagnosis is the need to clarify in each individual case why these manifestations are found in the behavior of the subject, what their causes and consequences are.
Psychological diagnosis can be established at different levels.
1. Symptomatic or empirical diagnosis is limited to the statement of features or symptoms on the basis of which practical conclusions are directly based. Such a diagnosis is not strictly scientific (or professional) because, as stated above, identifying symptoms never automatically leads to a diagnosis.
2. Etiological diagnosis takes into account not only the presence of certain characteristics and symptoms, but also the reasons for their occurrence.
3. Typological diagnosis (the highest level) consists of determining the place and meaning of the identified characteristics in a holistic, dynamic picture of the personality, in the overall picture of the client’s mental life. The diagnosis is not simply made based on the results of the examination, but necessarily involves correlating the data obtained with how the identified features manifest themselves in so-called life situations. Of great importance is the age-specific analysis of the data obtained, taking into account the child’s zone of proximal development.
It is unacceptable to use medical (nosological) concepts in a psychological diagnosis, such as “ZPR”, “psychopathy”, “neurotic conditions”, etc. By doing this, the psychologist not only violates deontological principles, but also goes beyond the content of his professional field.
As K. Rogers emphasized, it is necessary to understand that the psychological data obtained are different and must differ in a certain, acceptable degree of inaccuracy. Conclusions are always relative, since they are made on the basis of experiments or observations carried out using one or more of the possible methods and using one of the possible ways of interpreting the data.
IN AND. Lubovsky notes that when qualifying deviations in a child’s development, it is better to underestimate than to overestimate the severity of the disorder.
Significant difficulties in making a diagnosis may be associated with an insufficiently clear understanding of the psychologist about the boundaries of his professional competence. It is important that in cases where doubts arise about the nature of the identified disorders, the psychologist does not try to make a diagnosis himself, but recommends that parents contact the appropriate specialists. The same applies to the problem of social factors that determined this or that psychological characteristic of the child (for example, in cases of drug addiction). A psychological diagnosis must be made by a psychologist in strict accordance with professional competence and at the level at which specific psychological and pedagogical correction or other psychological assistance can be provided.
The formulation of the diagnosis must necessarily contain a psychological prognosis - a prediction based on all the stages of studying the path and nature of the child’s further development that have been completed so far. The forecast must take into account: a) the conditions for carrying out timely necessary work with the child and b) the conditions for the absence of such timely work. It is recommended to divide the forecast into separate periods and resort to long-term repeated observations. One of the most important aspects of drawing up a development forecast is understanding the general dynamics of the child’s development and an idea of his compensatory capabilities.
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Definition concepts psychological diagnosis. Kinds psychological diagnosis. Psychological diagnosis (diagnosis, from Greek. diagnosis -
Definition concepts psychological diagnosis. Kinds psychological diagnosis. Psychological diagnosis (diagnosis, from Greek. diagnosis -
Definition concepts psychological diagnosis. Kinds psychological diagnosis. Psychological diagnosis (diagnosis, from Greek. diagnosis- recognition) - the final result is active. -
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