What is alchemy - science or magic? Famous alchemists. Attitude to alchemy, the role of magic in alchemy

The beginnings of chemistry arose with the emergence of Homo Sapiens. Since man has always dealt with chemicals, his first experiments with fire, tanning hides, and cooking can be regarded as the foundations of practical chemistry. Practical knowledge accumulated, and by the beginning of the development of civilization, people knew how to prepare paints, enamels, poisons and medicines. Man used both biological processes - fermentation, decay, and processes and the use of fire - combustion, sintering, fusion. Redox reactions were used - for example, the reduction of metals from their compounds.

Metallurgy, pottery, glassmaking, dyeing, perfumery, and cosmetics reached significant development even before the beginning of our era. Although chemical knowledge was carefully hidden by the priests from the uninitiated, it still slowly spread to other territories. Chemical science came to Europe from the Arabs after their conquest of Spain in 711. They called this science "alchemy".

There are several interpretations of the origin of the word “alchemy”. According to one of them, the root of the word “alchemy” is khem or kháme, chémi or сhúma, meaning “black soil” or “black country”. This was the name of Ancient Egypt, with which the art of black magicians, ore-mining priests, and goldsmiths is associated. According to another, “chymeia” - pouring, infusion - is an echo of the practice of Eastern pharmacists, who extracted the juices of medicinal plants in a similar way. Here is the study of the bowels of the earth (Latin húmus - earth). Several similar words can be found in ancient Greek: humos (χυμός) – juice; khyuma (χύμα) – casting, stream, river; chymeusis (χύμευσις) – mixing. Finally, ancient Chinese kim means gold. Then alchemy is gold-making. It is this meaning that has been assigned to alchemy par excellence. All that remains is an untranslatable particle al, which is most likely of Arabic origin.

From the alchemical texts that have come down to us, it is clear that alchemists were responsible for the discovery or improvement of methods for obtaining practically valuable compounds and mixtures (mineral and vegetable paints, glasses, enamels, metal alloys, acids, alkalis, salts, medicines). As well as the creation or improvement of laboratory work techniques (distillation, sublimation, filtration), the invention of new laboratory instruments (for example, furnaces for long-term heating, distillation cubes). Sometimes in alchemists one can notice a kind of anticipation of the laws of chemistry discovered later, which, however, goes back to the views of the Arabs, who, in turn, modified Aristotle’s views on this issue.

Ancient Egypt is considered the birthplace of alchemy. Alchemists sealed their vessels with a seal with the image of Hermes - hence the expression “hermetically sealed.” There was a legend that angels taught the art of turning “simple” metals into gold to earthly women with whom they married.

There is a legend that, by order of Alexander the Great, the thirteen commandments of the “Emerald Tablet” were inscribed on the tomb of Hermes the Thrice Greatest, the legendary founder of the secret art of alchemy. These words are the sacred material from which the alchemical universe has built itself for many centuries.

Before the arrival of Greek scientists, Egypt had artisanal chemicals used in temples. Recipes and processes were carefully recorded and protected from the uninitiated; were associated with astrology and magical rituals. Practical knowledge in Egypt was possessed not only by simple artisans - slaves and the lower classes of free people, but also by priests. At the Alexandria Academy there was a combination of ancient and practical knowledge about substances, their properties and transformations; from this connection a new science was born - khemeia.

As a result of the unification of Egyptian and Greek knowledge, two processes occurred:

Hellenization of the alchemy of the Egyptian priests. Practical knowledge acquired a “theoretical basis” in the form of the doctrine of the four elements of the elements.

Mystification of natural philosophy. Aristotle's rational system includes Pythagorean premises about the role of number and mystical elements that are uncharacteristic of Aristotelian metaphysics.

Born in Alexandria, alchemy acquired a heavenly patron - the god Thoth - the god of the Moon, wisdom, counting and writing, the patron of sciences and scribes. He is often identified with the legendary founder of alchemy, Hermes Trismegistus, to whom, according to alchemists, people owe the existence of writing, the calendar, and astronomy. The main objects of study of Alexandrian alchemy were metals; here the traditional metal-planetary symbolism of alchemy was formed, in which each of the seven then known metals was associated with the corresponding planet and day of the week:

Fig. 1 Conventional alchemical symbols

In the European alchemical tradition, mercury was often not considered a metal, since it was not mentioned in the Bible.

As already noted, “alchemy” usually refers to a field of research whose purpose was to obtain gold and silver from base metals. For more than a thousand years, despite all the failures, alchemy strived for its goal. With the same amazing tenacity they tried to find, probably, only the elixir of life and eternal youth. Alchemy was practiced not only by scientists who sincerely wanted to comprehend the secrets of nature, but also by those obsessed with delusional ideas, and madmen, and swindlers, and unlucky prophets. Many people of different eras gave not only entire fortunes, but their entire lives in order to succeed in obtaining gold.

Time passed, and the development of chemical knowledge increasingly showed the weakness of the ideas of alchemists. The use of new chemical terminology, starting from the end of the 18th century. finally destroyed the connection between chemistry and alchemy. And as a result, 1780-1810. became the last for alchemy, which ceased to exist as a field of human activity. Back in the second half of the 18th century. Sensational “gold obtaining sessions” took place in front of influential persons - kings and princes, and already in the 19th century. no serious chemist dealt with alchemical problems.

However, it would be unfair to follow so many “anti-alchemists” of the 18th century. and even some modern scientists try to consider alchemy only as a misguided attempt to achieve specific practical goals on the basis of mythological ideas. At the same time, the worldview issues of alchemy, which are important for the analysis of the development of chemistry, are left out of consideration. Although it now seems incredible, the mythological principles used by alchemists contained a rational grain, which led to the accumulation of knowledge that is also important for the chemistry of today. We must not forget that the development of alchemy proceeded along with the improvement of craft chemistry and pharmacy. The ideas of alchemists were also closely connected with natural philosophical systems and, of course, contributed to the development of theoretical views of chemistry. In addition, it is difficult to overestimate the contribution of alchemists to the development of chemical experiment technology.

The next important stage in the development of alchemy was the alchemy of the European Middle Ages or the alchemy of Christian doctors - the time of greatest development of this activity (the period from the 12th to the end of the 16th centuries). The search undertaken by alchemists, convinced of the possibility of finding the philosopher's stone through chemical transformations, spread widely. Among the outstanding personalities of this period, we can point out Albert the Great (XIII century), Roger Bacon (XIII century), George Ripley (XV century), Basil Valentine (XVI century), George Agricolla (XVI century). At this stage, alchemy increased knowledge about many chemical compounds, finding better ways to obtain some and discovering others for the first time, the main practical contribution of alchemy was made.

The final stage: began at the end of the 16th century. and continued until the end of the 18th century. This is the period of decline of alchemy. Nearby is the formation of modern science. With the transition to the study of the quantitative composition and relationships of substances by Van Helmont, the only path remained for alchemy to the formation of a scientific, experimental method, i.e. discarding as untenable the entire alchemical theory and the entire theological side. But against this path was both the power of tradition and the very organization of the alchemical action, closed within its own framework. And, nevertheless, alchemy has exhausted itself in its development, leaving behind the accumulated practical riches of modern chemistry.

Thus, we can say that alchemy gave quite a strong impetus to the development of the new science of chemistry. The rationalization of alchemy served to establish chemistry as one of the dominant sciences of the time.

The idea of ​​alchemy as “primitive chemistry,” which had developed in science by the end of the 19th century, was completely revised in the 20th century. However, it is believed that it was alchemy that gave impetus to the development of modern chemistry. In studies of various alchemical traditions, alchemical systems for the transformation of human beings are often referred to as “internal alchemy”, and the practices of obtaining various substances as “external alchemy” (terms derived from Chinese alchemy).

In reality, none of the “external alchemies” is a complete independent system. All of them are just a mixture of misunderstood and degraded techniques from the corresponding "inner alchemies", supplemented by some practical chemical and pharmacological knowledge.

In the course of history, the latter served as the basis for the first purely chemical descriptions. The idea of ​​the independent existence of independent “external alchemical” schools, and even more so of the origin of “internal alchemy” from “external” does not stand up to criticism for any of the traditions. “External” alchemy is always either a part of the corresponding “internal” or a vulgarization and false interpretation of the latter.

Alchemy, especially Western, is organically woven into the system of natural scientific knowledge and ideas of the Middle Ages. At the same time, one must be critical of the numerous manuscripts of charlatan alchemists, as well as the scholastic way of thinking characteristic of the Middle Ages, the dominion of magic and mysticism in science, which was reflected in the language of alchemy and its final results. However, the impossibility of “transmutation” of metals was clarified through experiment, during a futile search, only in the 16th century, at the time of the emergence of iatrochemistry, which, together with applied (technical) chemistry, by the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. led to the emergence of chemistry as a science. The artificial production of gold or silver was simply a practical task for the science of that time. The initial theoretical premise of alchemy - the idea of ​​​​the unified nature of matter and its universal convertibility - can hardly be called false.

Alchemy inextricably combined various manifestations of the creative activity of medieval man. In this regard, the allegorical nature of many alchemical treatises can be explained by the fact that they organically merged natural science and artistic ideas about the world (these are the alchemical poems of the classic of English literature of the 14th century, J. Chaucer, etc.). In addition, the activity of an alchemist is also a philosophical and theological creativity, and one in which both its pagan and Christian origins were manifested. That is why it turned out that where alchemy is Christianized (white magic), this type of activity is legalized by Christian ideology. Where alchemy appears in its pre-Christian quality (black magic), it is recognized as an unofficial, and therefore forbidden, activity. This largely explains the tragic fate of some European alchemists (for example, Roger Bacon, the alchemist Alexander Seton Cosmopolitan, etc.). Thus, in European alchemy a theoretician-experimentalist and a practical artisan, a poet and an artist, a scholastic and a mystic, a theologian and a philosopher, a magician-warlock and a devout Christian could be combined. This view of alchemy allows us to understand it as a phenomenon that concentrated many features of the way of life of the Dark and Middle Ages.

From the alchemical texts that have come down to us, it is clear that alchemists were responsible for the discovery or improvement of methods for obtaining valuable compounds and mixtures, such as mineral and vegetable paints, glasses, enamels, salts, acids, alkalis, alloys, and medicines. They used laboratory techniques such as distillation, sublimation, and filtration. Alchemists invented furnaces for long-term heating and alembics.

The achievements of the alchemists of the People's Republic of China and India remained unknown in Europe. In the Russian Federation, alchemy was not widespread until Peter’s reforms, but almost all Russian alchemists (the most famous of them, J. Bruce) were of foreign origin.

Despite the dubious practices of many deceivers, there is still supposedly enough evidence that real gold can be obtained from substances that do not contain gold through the art of alchemy. For such transmutation (transformation) of base metals into gold, the notorious philosopher's stone, also called the great elixir or red tincture, was used. True miracles were told about the philosopher's stone: it was supposed to bring its owner not only sparkling gold and limitless wealth, but also reveal the secret of eternal youth and long life. This wonderful liquid is supposedly a panacea for diseases and aging ailments, an elixir of life. In addition, through the art of alchemy it was also possible to obtain pure silver from substances that did not contain silver. For this purpose, a “second-order stone” was used, also known as a small elixir, or white tincture.

Analysis alchemy as the progenitor of chemistry makes it possible to look into the past and understand the process of formation of Renaissance chemistry, chemical technology, scientific experiment, which prepared the basis for the creation of chemistry as a great science.

“The word “Alchemy” is derived from the Arabic al-kimiya, which goes back to the Greek chemeia, from cheo - pour, cast, which indicates the connection of alchemy with the art of smelting and casting metals, or from Chemia-Egypt, which connects alchemy with the place where this art arose."

The purpose of this essay is to study the history of alchemy, trace the stages of its development, understand what it studied, what tasks it set for itself, and what contribution famous alchemists made to the history of knowledge and the development of modern science. To achieve this goal, an analysis of literary data was carried out, during which the main stages in the formation of chemistry as a science were identified, the activities of alchemist scientists were analyzed and conclusions were drawn on the contribution of each period to the currently established science.

In the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary it is given definition of the term "alchemy". The book “The Emergence and Development of Chemistry from Ancient Times to the 18th Century” covers the question of the mythological origins of the doctrine of elements and provides an interesting analysis of various alchemical texts. Material from the book by N.A. Figurovsky. “Essay on the General History of Chemistry” illustrates the main features of the process of accumulation of chemical knowledge from antiquity to the 19th century. The book provides brief overviews of the socio-political and economic conditions, as well as philosophical views, that affected the development of chemistry. In the book by N.A. Figurovsky. “History of Chemistry” includes material about the most prominent chemists. A. Azimov’s book “A Brief History of Chemistry” provides an accessible account of the history of the emergence and development of chemistry. Book by Stepin B.D. “A Book on Chemistry for Home Reading” describes interesting chemical facts and episodes from the life of chemist scientists. Book by Rabinovich V.L. “Alchemy as a Phenomenon of Medieval Culture” is dedicated to the centuries-old history of alchemy as a specific medieval phenomenon that captured the essential features of the culture and thinking of that era.

The Museion of Alexandria is considered to be the birthplace of chemical knowledge. Founded by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. the new capital of Egypt, Alexandria, quickly became the largest commercial and cultural center of the ancient Mediterranean. Ptolemy I Soter (367-283 BC), a comrade-in-arms of Alexander, who became king of Egypt after the latter’s death (323 BC), founded the Alexandrian Museyon, which, together with the largest repository of ancient manuscripts created under it, – Library of Alexandria (about 700,000 manuscripts) – existed for about a thousand years (until the 7th century AD).

Chemistry in Ancient Egypt was not distinguished as an independent field of knowledge, but constituted the “sacred art” of the priests. The processing of precious stones, embalming of corpses and other operations, more technological than mystical, were accompanied by mysterious rituals and spells. In the temples, the recipes and technological processes used were carefully recorded, preserved and protected from the uninitiated.

In the Alexandria Museion there was a combination of theory (Greek natural philosophy) and practical knowledge about substances, their properties and transformations; from this connection a new science was born - khemeia.

Born in Alexandria, alchemy immediately acquired a heavenly patron - the Egyptian god Thoth, and its analogue - the Greek Hermes. Thoth-Hermes is often identified with the legendary founder of alchemy Hermes Trismegistus (Thrice Greatest), to whom, according to alchemists, people owe the existence of writing, calendar, astronomy, etc. At the Academy of Alexandria, laboratories of “sacred art” were located in the main building of the academy - the Temple of Serapis (temple of life, death and healing). Throughout its existence alchemy remained a hermetic science - closed to the uninitiated.

The main objects of study of Alexandrian alchemy were metals; It was in Alexandrian alchemy that the traditional metal-planetary symbolism of alchemy was formed, in which each of the seven then known metals was associated with a corresponding planet:

• Silver – Moon
• Mercury – Mercury
• Copper – Venus
• Gold – Sun
• Iron – Mars
• Tin – Jupiter
• Lead – Saturn

Among the undoubted practical achievements of the Greco-Egyptian alchemists is the discovery of the phenomenon amalgamation of metals. Alexandrian alchemists improved the method of extracting gold and silver from ores, for which mercury obtained from cinnabar or calomel was widely used. Gold amalgam began to be used for gilding. Alchemists also developed a method for purifying gold by cupellation - heating ore with lead and nitrate.

In addition to practical significance, the unique ability mercury to form an amalgam led to the emergence of the idea of ​​mercury as a special, “primary” metal. This was also facilitated by the unusual properties of the compound of mercury with sulfur - cinnabar - which, depending on the conditions of production, has a different color - from red to blue.

The first significant representative of Alexandrian alchemy, whose name has survived to this day, was Bolos Demokritos of Mendes (2nd century BC), also known as Pseudo-Democritus (in his works he referred to Democritus.). The book “Physics and Mysticism” written by Bolos consists of four parts devoted to gold, silver, precious stones and purple. Bolos first formulated the idea of ​​transmutation of metals - the transformation of one metal into another, primarily base metals (lead or iron) into gold, which became the main task of the entire alchemical period.

It should be noted that the possibility transmutation was substantiated by alchemists on the basis of the theory of the four elements. The elements themselves, the combination of which all substances are formed, are capable of transforming into each other. Therefore, the transformation of one metal composed of these elements into another metal composed of the same elements in a different combination was considered only a matter of method (art). The practical prerequisite for the emergence of the idea of ​​transmutation could be a sharp change in the color and properties of the metal, known since ancient times, with the introduction of certain additives (for example, the color of arsenic copper, known since 4 thousand BC, varies from white to reddish and golden shades).

Implementation metal transmutation and constituted the main task of alchemy throughout its existence. The first descriptions of methods for producing alloys similar to noble metals are already in the work of Bolos; in particular, it describes the preparation of brass - a yellow alloy of copper and zinc, such an alloy, according to Bolos, was gold.

Another work of the Alexandrian period that has survived to our time is the encyclopedia, which was written around 300 by the Egyptian Zosimus Panopolite (III-IV). In this book, which is a production recipe richly flavored with mysticism, he summarizes all the knowledge on khemaia collected over the previous five or six centuries. Zosimus defined khemeia as the art of making gold and silver, and especially pointed out the prohibition of disclosing the secrets of this art.

In addition to the mentioned collections of recipes, many Hermetic texts also remain from the Alexandrian period, representing an attempt at a philosophical and mystical explanation of the transformations of substances, which include the famous “Emerald Tablet” (“Tabula smaragdina”) of Hermes Trismegistus - the brightest document of Alexandrian alchemy. According to researchers, it is in this text that the Alexandrian alchemical experience is assimilated.

In general, it should be noted that very little is known about the Alexandrian stage of alchemy. The reason for this is, first of all, the almost complete destruction of the Library of Alexandria. In addition, the Roman emperor Diocletian (243-315), in order to exclude the possibility of obtaining cheap gold, which would undermine the already shaky economy of the collapsing empire, banned chemistry classes and ordered the destruction of all works on khemaia.

The establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire under Emperor Constantine (285-337) led to even greater persecution of alchemy, permeated with pagan mysticism and, for this reason, certainly a heresy. Since the Academy of Alexandria was the center of natural science and ancient philosophy, it was repeatedly destroyed by Christian fanatics.

In 385 - 415 Many buildings of the Alexandria Academy were destroyed, incl. and the Temple of Serapis. In 529, Pope Gregory I banned the reading of ancient books and the study of mathematics and philosophy; Christian Europe plunged into the darkness of the early Middle Ages. Formally, the Academy of Alexandria ceased to exist after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in 640. The scientific and cultural traditions of the Greek school in the East were preserved in the Byzantine Empire, and then they were adopted by the Arab world.

In the 7th century The victorious march of a new world religion - Islam - began, which led to the creation of a huge Caliphate, which included Asia Minor and Central Asia, North Africa (including, of course, Egypt) and the south of the Iberian Peninsula in Europe. The Arab caliphs, imitating Alexander the Great, patronized the sciences. In the Middle East - in Damascus, Baghdad, Cordoba, Cairo - universities were created, which became the main scientific centers for several centuries and gave humanity a whole galaxy of outstanding scientists. The word khemeia was transformed in Arabic into al-khimiya, which gave the name to the stage described.

The influence of Islam in Arab universities was relatively weak; in addition, the study of the works of ancient authors did not contradict the three mandatory Islamic dogmas - faith in Allah, in his prophets and the afterlife. Thanks to this, scientific ideas based on the scientific heritage of antiquity, including the Alexandrian khemaia, could freely develop in the Arab East.

Theoretical basis Arabic alchemy became the teaching of Aristotle and his idea of ​​​​the interconvertibility of elements. However, for interpreting experimental data concerning the properties of metals, Aristotle’s theory turned out to be not very convenient, since it described, first of all, the physical properties of the substance.

Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayan (721-815) developed the mercury-sulfur theory of the origin of metals, which formed the theoretical basis of alchemy for several subsequent centuries. Jabir ibn Hayan created a theory designed to more specifically explain the properties of metals (in particular, such as luster, malleability, flammability) and justify the possibility of transmutation. It should be especially noted that the mercury-sulfur theory was an attempt at a theoretical generalization of experimental data on a rather particular issue, without claiming to be a universal explanation. This fundamentally distinguishes it from classical natural philosophical teachings.

The essence of the mercury-sulfur theory is as follows: all metals are based on two principles - Mercury (philosophical Mercury) and Sulfur (philosophical Sulfur). Mercury is the principle of metallicity, Sulfur is the principle of flammability. The principles of the new theory, thus, act as carriers of certain properties of metals, established as a result of experimental studies of the effect of high temperatures on metals.

It is important to note that for many centuries it was accepted that the action of high temperatures (the fire method) was the best method for simplifying the composition of the body. It should be emphasized that philosophical Mercury and philosophical Sulfur are not identical to mercury and sulfur as specific substances. Ordinary mercury and sulfur represent a kind of evidence of the existence of philosophical Mercury and Sulfur as principles, and principles that are more spiritual than material. The metal mercury, according to Jabir ibn Hayan, represents an almost pure principle of metallicity (philosophical Mercury), containing, however, a certain amount of the principle of flammability (philosophical Sulfur).

According to the teachings of Jabir, dry vapors, condensing in the depths of the Earth, give Sulfur, wet vapors - Mercury. Then, under the influence of heat, the two principles combine to form the seven known metals - gold, silver, mercury, lead, copper, tin and iron.

Gold- a perfect metal - is formed only if completely pure Sulfur and Mercury are taken in the most favorable ratios. In the earth, according to Jabir, the formation of gold and other metals occurs gradually and slowly; The “ripening” of gold can be accelerated with the help of a certain “medicine” or “elixir” (al-iksir, from the Greek ξεριον, i.e. “dry”), which leads to a change in the ratio of Mercury and Sulfur in metals and to the transformation of the latter into gold and silver. Since the density of gold is greater than that of mercury, it was believed that the elixir must be a very dense substance. Later in Europe, the elixir was called the “philosopher’s stone” (Lapis Philosophorum).

The problem of transmutation, thus, within the framework of the mercury-sulfur theory, was reduced to the problem of isolating an elixir, designated by alchemists with the astrological symbol of the Earth. According to alchemists, the process of transforming “imperfect metals” into a “perfect metal” - gold - can be identified with the “healing” of metals. Therefore, the elixir, according to the ideas of Geber’s followers, was supposed to have many more magical properties - to heal all diseases, and, possibly, give immortality. It is these “side functions” of the elixir that have become entrenched in the modern meaning of the word in Russian. In general, it should be noted that Arab alchemy has always been very closely connected with medicine, which was very highly developed in the Arab world (in particular, the first state pharmacy appeared in Baghdad in the 8th century), and almost all Arab alchemists were also known like doctors. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya Ar-Razi (864-925) made some changes to the mercury-sulfur theory. Since the properties of substances such as metal salts are quite difficult to explain using two principles, Ar-Razi added a third principle to them, the principle of solubility (fragility) - the philosophical Salt. Mercury and Sulfur, in his opinion, form solid substances only in the presence of this third principle. In this form, the theory of the three principles acquired logical completeness and existed unchanged for several centuries.

Ar-Razi also made an attempt to combine the teachings of Aristotle - the main theoretical basis of alchemy - with the atomistic idea. The four elements of Aristotle, according to Ar-Razi, are four types of atoms moving in the void and differing in shape and size. Among the many merits of Ar-Razi, it should also be noted that he proposed a classification of substances into three kingdoms - mineral, plant and animal. Ar-Razi in his writings described in detail chemical glassware, equipment, scales and laboratory techniques. In general, Arab alchemists were characterized by a careful attitude to the description of the experiment; scales and laboratory equipment by the 11th century. have reached a high degree of perfection. In particular, Abu ar-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed Al-Biruni (973-1048) and Abd ar-Rahman Al Khazini (first half of the 12th century) cited in their works metal densities that differed from modern values ​​by less than one percent.

Among Arab scientists, the famous Bukhara physician Abu Ali al Hussein ibn Abdallah ibn Sina, or Avicenna (980-1037), stands out, who was the first critic of the idea of ​​​​transmutation of metals, which he considered impossible: “Alchemists claim that they are supposedly able to carry out genuine transformations of substances . However, they can only produce excellent imitations by coloring red metal white so that it looks like silver, or coloring it yellow so that it looks like gold... I do not deny that with such changes in the appearance of metals such a degree of similarity can be achieved that even very experienced people can be deceived. However, the possibility of eliminating specific differences between metals or imparting to a metal the specific properties of another metal has never been clear to me. On the contrary, I consider this impossible, since there are no ways to transform one metal into another.”

It was during the Arab stage that the basic theories of alchemy were created, the conceptual apparatus, laboratory equipment and experimental methods were developed. Arab alchemists achieved undoubted practical success - they isolated antimony, arsenic and, apparently, phosphorus, obtained acetic acid and solutions of strong mineral acids. Arabic alchemy, unlike Alexandrian, was completely rational; the mystical elements in it were more of a tribute to tradition. The "chemistry" of the Arabs and the texts of the early alchemists, which came to Europe through Italy, were initially perceived as an incentive to achieve a tempting goal.

European states, primarily the countries of southern Europe, were in fairly close contact with Byzantium and the Arab world, especially after the start of the Crusades (the 1st began in 1096). Europeans had the opportunity to become acquainted with the brilliant achievements of Arab civilization and with the heritage of antiquity, preserved thanks to the Arabs. In the 12th century. Attempts began to translate Arabic treatises and works of ancient authors into Latin. The first secular educational institutions - universities - were created in Europe: in Bologna (1119), Montpellier (1189), Paris (1200). Starting from the 13th century, we can talk about European alchemy as a special stage of the alchemical period. It should be noted that there were very significant differences between Arab and European alchemy. European alchemy developed in a society where the Christian (Catholic) church actively intervened in all secular affairs; presenting ideas that contradicted Christian dogmas was a very dangerous matter.

Alchemy in Europe from the moment of its inception was in a semi-underground position; in 1317, Pope John XXII anathematized alchemy, after which any alchemist could at any time be declared a heretic with all the ensuing consequences. However, European rulers, both secular and ecclesiastical, having outlawed alchemy, at the same time patronized it, counting on the benefits that would come from finding a way to obtain gold. As a result, European alchemy, like Alexandrian alchemy, was originally a Hermetic science, accessible only to initiates. This explains the extremely vague presentation of the results achieved, characteristic of European alchemy. However, for quite a long time, European works on alchemy were only translations or compilations of Arabic treatises.

The first famous European alchemist was the Dominican monk Albert von Bolstedt (1193-1280), better known as Albertus Magnus. The works of Albertus Magnus (“Book of Alchemy”, etc.) played an important role in the fact that Aristotle’s natural philosophy became the most significant for European scientists of the late Middle Ages and the beginning of the New Time. Albertus Magnus was the first European alchemist to describe in detail the properties of arsenic, which is why he is sometimes credited with the discovery of this substance. Albertus Magnus even expressed the opinion that metals consist of mercury, sulfur, arsenic and ammonia. A contemporary of Albert the Great was the English Franciscan monk Roger Bacon (1214-1294), who wrote, in particular, the famous treatise “The Mirror of Alchemy”. The treatise provides a detailed description of the nature of metals from the point of view of the mercury-sulfur theory. Roger Bacon defined alchemy “as an art also consisting of speculation and experience. The task of alchemy is to imitate nature, to transform inferior and imperfect bodies into perfect ones.”

According to Bacon and his followers, cooking elixir(a means of facilitating the transformation of an imperfect substance into a perfect one) from the “primary substance” was to be carried out in three stages - nigredo (black stage), albedo (white, which results in a small elixir capable of transforming metals into silver) and rubedo (red, the product of which is the great elixir - the magisterium). Roger Bacon divided alchemy into speculative (theoretical), which studies the composition and origin of metals and minerals, and practical, which deals with the extraction and purification of metals, the preparation of paints, etc. Bacon was one of the first to describe black powder and is sometimes considered its inventor. It should be noted that the appearance of firearms became a strong incentive for the development of alchemy and its close intertwining with artisan chemistry. In the works of Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon, as in the writings of the Arab alchemists, the share of mysticism was relatively small. At the same time, mystical elements are much more characteristic of European alchemy as a whole than of Arabic alchemy.

The founders of mystical movements are often considered to be the Spanish physician Arnaldo de Villanova (1240-1313) and Raymond Lull (1235-1313). Their works were also devoted to transmutation (Llull even claimed to be able to obtain the philosopher's stone and gold), with particular emphasis on the magical operations necessary to obtain the desired results.

However, in the XII – XV centuries. European alchemy achieved significant success, managing to surpass the Arabs in comprehending the properties of matter. In 1270, the Italian alchemist Cardinal Giovanni Fidanza (1121-1274), known as Bonaventura, in one of his attempts to obtain a universal solvent, obtained a solution of ammonia in nitric acid (aqua fortis), which turned out to be capable of dissolving gold, the king of metals (hence the name - aqua Regis, i.e. aqua regia).

The name of the most significant of the medieval European alchemists, who worked in Spain in the 14th century, remains unknown - he signed his works with the name of Geber. Pseudo-Geber was the first to describe in detail the strong mineral acids - sulfuric and nitric. The use of concentrated mineral acids in alchemical practice led to a significant increase in alchemists' knowledge of the substance.

Much information about various substances is given in the writings of the famous alchemist Benedictine monk Basil Valentin (second half of the 15th century): antimony, compounds of zinc, bismuth, tin, lead, cobalt, methods of production and properties of hydrochloric acid, wine alcohol, etc. are described in detail. etc. In addition to the legendary Vasily Valentine, in the XV - XVI centuries. In Western Europe, many alchemists were widely known - either due to their imaginary successes in obtaining the philosopher's stone, or due to their writings: Nicholas Flamel, Alexander Setonius, Johann Isaac Holland, Mikhail Sedzivoy, Wenzel Seiler and many others.

Alchemical ideas were extremely popular in society; faith in the miraculous properties of the philosopher's stone seemed to be unshakable. However, by the middle of the 16th century. a rapidly progressing division became evident in European alchemy. On the one hand, there is a degenerating mystical trend, whose representatives still tried to carry out the transmutation of metals with the help of magic, on the other, rational trends that were gaining strength. The most significant of the latter were atrochemistry and technical chemistry, which became a kind of transitional stage from classical alchemy to new scientific chemistry.

A completely new understanding of the problems of alchemy was outlined in the works of the founders of technical chemistry, Vanoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539) “On Pyrotechnics” and Georg Bauer (1494-1555), better known as Agricola, “De Re Metallica”. The works of these authors were a kind of encyclopedia devoted to mineralogy, metallurgy, mining, ceramics production, i.e. technological processes involving chemical operations with substances. A characteristic feature of the works of representatives of technical chemistry was the desire for the most clear, complete and reliable description of experimental data and technological processes. It was in the search for ways to improve chemical technology that Biringuccio and Agricola saw the task of alchemy.

The German physician and alchemist Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, who went down in history under the pseudonym Paracelsus (1493-1541), became the founder of another rational direction in alchemy - iatrochemistry (Greek ιατροσ - doctor). In theoretical terms, Paracelsus was a classical alchemist - he shared the ancient Greek doctrine of the four elements and the Arab theory of the three principles. Paracelsus was no stranger to mysticism - he searched for the elixir of life and even claimed to have found it; in his writings you can find a detailed recipe for preparing homunculus. However, like Avicenna, Paracelsus had a negative attitude towards the idea of ​​​​transmutation of metals (without denying, however, the fundamental possibility of transmutation). Paracelsus argued that the task of alchemy is the production of medicines: “Chemistry is one of the pillars on which medical science should rest. The task of chemistry is not at all to make gold and silver, but to prepare medicines.” Paracelsus' medicine was based on the mercury-sulfur theory. He believed that in a healthy body the three principles - Mercury, Sulfur and Salt - are in balance; disease represents an imbalance between principles. To restore balance, Paracelsus used many medicines of mineral origin in medical practice - compounds of arsenic, antimony, lead, mercury, etc. – in addition to traditional herbal preparations.

Due to the sharply increased migrations of people, contributing to the spread of infectious diseases (which was aggravated by the total unsanitary conditions prevailing in medieval Europe), the fight against epidemics acquired extreme importance in the time of Paracelsus. Thanks to the undoubted successes achieved by Paracelsus in medicine, his views gained wide recognition. Representatives of iatrochemistry (spagyricists, as the followers of Paracelsus called themselves) include many famous alchemists of the 16th – 17th centuries.

Andreas Libavius ​​(1540-1616) became famous for the first chemistry textbook in history, Alchemy, published in 1597. The first section of this book contains a description of chemical glassware, chemical apparatus, and heating devices. Here is a design for an ideal chemical laboratory. Alchemy, as Libavius ​​understands it, is a practical science. Libaviy, by distilling tin amalgam with sublimate - mercury dichloride - obtained “merlimate alcohol” - tin tetrachloride, which was subsequently long called “fuming alcohol of Libaviy”. An important role in the development of rational alchemy was played by Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604-1668), who developed methods for obtaining a number of inorganic substances. Another famous alchemist, Otto Tacheny (1620-1699), tried to amend the mercury-sulfur theory, arguing that all salts are formed by two principles - acid and alkali. Another representative of iatrochemistry, Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577-1664), was one of the first scientists to raise the question of the true simple components of complex bodies. Questioning the Aristotelian elements and the principles of alchemists on the grounds that their presence cannot be detected in the composition of most bodies, Van Helmont proposed to consider as simple bodies only those that can be isolated during the decomposition of complex bodies. Thus, since water was always released during the decomposition of plant and animal substances, Van Helmont considered it a simple body and the main component of complex bodies. In search of other simple bodies, Van Helmont experimented a lot with metals. He proved that when silver is dissolved in strong vodka (nitric acid), the metal only changes the form of its existence and can be again isolated from the solution in the same quantity. This experiment is also interesting as one of the first examples of a quantitative study of a phenomenon.

In general, rational trends in alchemy - atrochemistry and technical chemistry - achieved quite significant experimental successes and laid the foundations for scientific chemistry, the formation of which began in the middle of the 17th century. It should not be assumed that the emergence of scientific chemistry automatically meant the end of “classical” alchemy. Alchemical traditions persisted in science for a long time, and many natural scientists continued to consider the transmutation of metals possible.

Alchemy Initially, it had very serious negative features, which, in the end, made it a dead-end branch of the development of natural science. Firstly, this is the limitation of the subject only to the transmutation of metals; all alchemical operations with matter were subordinated to this main goal. Secondly, mysticism, which is more or less inherent in all alchemists. Thirdly, this is the dogmatism of the theory - Aristotle’s teaching, which underlies the idea of ​​transmutation, was accepted as the ultimate truth without any justification. Finally, the initially closed nature of alchemy was a significant obstacle to the development of this science. However, the vulnerability of alchemy to criticism from the point of view of modern science in no way means that the work of many generations of alchemists was meaningless and useless.

The main result of the alchemical period, in addition to the accumulation of a significant stock of knowledge about matter, was the formation of an empirical (experimental) approach to the study of the properties of matter. Alchemists developed the mercury-sulfur theory (the theory of three principles), designed to generalize experimental data.

Alchemists, in search of the philosopher's stone, laid the foundation for the creation of chemistry. Thus, the alchemical period was an absolutely necessary transitional stage between natural philosophy and experimental natural science.

• Postgraduate student: Shchekaleva T.I.
• Head: Barmin A.V.

Analysis of alchemy as the ancestor of chemistry makes it possible to look into the past and understand the process of the formation of Renaissance chemistry, chemical technology, and scientific experiment, which prepared the basis for the creation of chemistry as a great science. The history of alchemy and the stages of its development have been studied.

If science is associated with rationalism, order, experimental method, reliability and efficiency, then alchemy presupposes the presence of a component that is not reducible to rationalism, associated with miracle and mystery. T&P talk about why alchemists wanted to get the fifth element, what role they played in the development of Western European science and what the philosophy of nature is.

Do you want to find out what the word “alchemy” means for modern people? Refer to the actual linguistic practice of using the word “alchemy”. You will see this word often used as an adjective in various contexts - "alchemy of numbers", "alchemy of happiness" and even "alchemy of finance" - the famous work of George Soros. However, this word has one meaning - we are talking about a mysterious process, inaccessible to the uninitiated, the knowledge of which allows us to understand how, for example, the final number in statistics is obtained, what is the secret of happiness, or even how to get rich.

If you want to know how it is that modern people use the word “alchemy” in this sense, you should open books on the history of science. First of all, we need to turn to the heyday of alchemy. The 16th–17th centuries can be characterized as a “time of transition”: the old systems of values ​​and rules had already lost their former authority, and new systems were only being created in the heat of controversy and struggle. It was at this time that the foundations of European science were formed, which radically changed not only the appearance of the West, but subsequently transformed the appearance of the entire globe. Magic, science, religion - those spheres that we so habitually and unconsciously distinguish - were in a bizarre amalgam, creating the unique and unique character of that time.

Alchemy played an important role in this alloy, first of all, because people very different in their beliefs and social status showed interest in it. Among those interested in alchemy you will find: an arrogant university professor studying the essence and meaning of alchemy from ancient Arabic books; a humble and poor artisan seeking to learn how to make quality ink; a wealthy merchant demanding to know the secret of turning iron into gold; a meticulous scientist trying to understand the properties of stones and metals; the cautious physician hoping to obtain a new drug; a politician who wants to find the magic elixir of eternal youth. Among the alchemists there were Christians, Jews, Muslims - alchemy in general was one of the main trends in the intellectual environment of that time.

The fifth element was attributed special properties, because, according to Aristotle’s theory, it did not belong to the earthly world of constant change, but to the heavenly and eternal world.

Books written by alchemists were devoted to a very wide range of issues and quickly disappeared from bookstore shelves. For a modern person, who knows about alchemy only by hearsay and, for example, associates it exclusively with the search for the mythical “philosopher’s stone,” it is not entirely clear how intelligent and rationally thinking people could be carried away by such nonsense. To understand this, it is necessary to turn to those ideas that were considered quite reasonable and widespread in the scientific community at that time.

The most influential view of nature was Aristotle's theory of the four elements - air, water, fire, earth. The fundamental principle of all elements was the fifth element - quintessence - as the principle that governs the behavior of the remaining elements. The fifth element, unlike the other elements, was eternal, had no qualities and was not capable of change. In Aristotle's theory, the fifth element was the fundamental principle of all elements and was found in any substance. According to Aristotle, elements can form stable combinations, later in the Arab tradition called “mercury” (water and air) and “sulfur” (earth and fire). In accordance with this classification, all metals and substances were distributed into different elements: gold is a metal dominated by sulfur, and silver is a metal dominated by mercury.

This theory helped Aristotle explain various physical processes occurring in nature. According to the ancient philosopher, one element is transformed into another element when we change its qualities. For example, water (“moist” and “wet”), if you start heating it, turns into air (“hot” and “wet”). It was assumed that under the influence of appropriate qualities, one substance in nature turns into another substance, for example, iron becomes gold after a long stay underground.

Among the alchemists there were Christians, Jews, Muslims - alchemy in general was one of the main trends in the intellectual environment of that time.

What did the alchemists do? Many of them acted within the framework of Aristotle's theory, setting themselves two tasks: to discover a reagent that would speed up the natural process of transforming elements (for example, turning iron into gold), and also to discover a process that would allow the fifth element to be isolated from four elements. The search for quintessence is perhaps the most characteristic, in fact, alchemical activity of this time.

Why did the alchemists want it so much? The fact is that special properties were attributed to the fifth element, because, according to Aristotle’s theory, it did not belong to the earthly world of constant change, but to the heavenly and eternal world. For example, it could guarantee a person eternal youth and serve as a universal cure for all diseases. Or an alchemist could, thanks to the fifth element, understand the secret of the transformations of elements and learn how to transform some metals into others.

Alchemists tried to isolate the fifth element in different ways. A strong tradition that influenced the famous medieval scientist and alchemist Roger Bacon, for example, said that the quintessence is found in the greatest quantity in the blood. Other alchemists sought to isolate the quintessence through distillation, and the famous Scotch brandies are said to have been the result of alchemical experiments.

While searching for the fifth element, alchemists learned about the existence of a significant number of chemical processes, preparing the ground and accumulating knowledge for the development of chemical science. It is no coincidence that the work of one of the “grandfathers” of chemistry, Andreas Libavius ​​(1555–1616), was called “Alchemy” (1597), although it was devoted to the issue of the technique of preparing chemical substances: it contained instructions on the use of tools, actively operated with the quantitative method, and even offered advice on creating a kind of chemical laboratory.

Books about alchemy:

Bruce Moran, Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the Scientific Revolution

William Newman, Promethean Ambitions: Alchemy and the Quest to Perfect Nature

In addition, alchemists, recognizing the properties of stones and metals, contributed to the development of mining. The books of some alchemists stood not only on the shelves of scientists, but also directly in the forges. Alchemy was, first of all, a practical activity, oriented towards direct application. And, for example, George Agricola (1494–1555) in his book “On Mining” and Vanoccio Biringuccio (1480–1539) in “Pyrotechnics” highly appreciated alchemy, but insisted on its purification from obscure and impractical elements.

Finally, alchemists, trying to understand how certain substances act on humans, developed medicine. John Pope's book Chemical Medicine (1617) was a very popular book on how to use the quintessence obtained from various plants and stones for medicinal purposes. In his book “The Best Part of the Art of Distillation and Medicine” (1623), Konrad Kunrath described how, with the help of alchemy, created, in his opinion, by God, one can obtain a cure for various diseases.

A significant amount of practical alchemical information has been preserved in collections of recipes, which in scientific literature are usually called “books of secrets.” The Books of Secrets are a bizarre combination of scientific, magical and religious advice. One of them was the famous “The Proper Use of Alchemy” (1535), containing useful information for goldsmiths and book scribes. And also the no less famous “Secrets” of Isabella Cortese, which contained recipes for making soap and toothpaste.

History has preserved for us the names of many alchemists, but the most famous among them are those who are in one way or another connected with the development of scientific knowledge. The most important of them are Robert Boyle (1627–1691) and Isaac Newton (1642–1727), whose alchemical interests are the subject of many historical books and articles. The place and role of alchemy in the scientific research of these scientists has long been a subject of debate and debate among historians of science.

The first historians of science treated alchemy as a kind of “sub-chemistry”, without considering it as an independent cultural phenomenon related to the history of natural science. For them, alchemy was associated with magic, sought to achieve the impossible and promised what could not be obtained. With such an approach, the fascination with alchemy of rationally thinking and experimentally oriented scientists of the 17th century seemed paradoxical and belonged to a kind of “remnants” of a mythological worldview, which these scientists were never able to overcome. It is worth noting separately that it was this view that influenced the formation of the modern popular attitude towards alchemy as an activity associated with the occult, magic and mystery. As an independent cultural phenomenon, alchemy is much richer and more interesting than a simple “striving for a miracle” in the age of mechanistic science.

In order to consider the works of alchemists in the context of their time, modern historians of science propose not to use the word “science” in relation to the situation of the 16th–17th centuries. They say that it is better to call the activities of scientists of that time “philosophy of nature,” given that this is how they themselves characterized their activities. And the alchemical interests of Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle organically find their expression in this philosophy, which included many provisions and ideas rejected by later science. In the space of experiment and search in which scientists of the 16th–17th centuries found themselves, alchemy, with its albeit unattained ideals of searching for the fifth element, played an important role in the development of scientific knowledge.

Brother Marsyas.

A lchemy is the Art and Science of transformation. It is not easy to comprehend, because the rules and methods of alchemy are described for the most part through allegories and mythological symbols, which can be interpreted simultaneously on both the material and spiritual levels. The main goal of alchemy is to bring all things, including humanity, to the state of perfection predetermined for each and every one. In this regard, the alchemical theory asserts that the Eternal Wisdom remains hidden and lies dormant in humanity as long as people remain in worldly ignorance and judge everything superficially. Thus, the task of alchemy is to reveal this Hidden Wisdom and remove the veils and obstacles between the human mind and its originally pure Divine Source.

It is precisely this spiritual alchemy (as opposed to purely chemical art) that the work of the magician should be oriented towards. From the moment of initiation the process of spiritual alchemy begins. A neophyte (convert) is a rough primal matter that has to be transmuted by means of Art in the course of the Work - movement along the Hermetic Path. He has to master the elemental elements that make up his soul, learn to control them (that is, go through the processes of separation and purification), so that subsequently all the elements of the magician’s personality are reunited into a new purified whole (the process of cobation), and then the Adept must absorb the fifth into his essence element - Quintessence, that is, to perform the operation of Cognition and Conversation with your Sacred Guardian Angel. This could take him a lifetime. The Great Work, or the quest for the gold of the spirit, is a long journey. But despite the fact that the goal is far away, every step on this Path brings innumerable rewards.

As stated in the materials of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn:

“alchemy as a special discipline is based on some other disciplines. This is astrology, magic and Kabbalah. It is impossible to be a good alchemist without being a good Kabbalist. It is impossible to be a good Kabbalist without mastering magic, and it is impossible to master magic without first studying astrology.”

The basic principles of alchemy are:

1. The universe is of divine origin. Cosmos is an emanation of the One Divine Absolute. Therefore, everything that exists is one.

2. All physical manifestations exist due to the Law of Polarity, or Duality. Any concept can be defined through its opposite: male/female, sun/moon, spirit/body, etc.

3. All physical manifestations in each of the so-called three kingdoms (plant, animal and mineral) consist of Spirit, Soul and Body - analogues of the three alchemical principles.

4. All alchemical work, whether practical experiments in the laboratory or spiritual alchemy, is divided into three main evolutionary processes: separation (separation), purification (purification) and cobation (reunion). Natural processes are also divided into these three stages.

5. All matter consists of four elements: Fire (thermal energy), Water (liquid), Air (gas) and Earth (solids).

6. All four elements contain the quintessence, or fifth element. This is one of the three principles, also called Philosophical Mercury.

7. Everything that exists moves towards its predetermined state of perfection.

The stages of the philosophical process of alchemical transmutation are symbolized by four colors: black(guilts, origins, latent forces) - the color of the First Matter, a symbol of the Soul in its original state, or an undivided mass of elements, fraught with endless possibilities; white(Small Work, first transmutation, mercury); red(sulphur, passion) and finally gold(spiritual purity).

In alchemical science it stands out three basic substances, present in everything that exists. In Indian texts these three principles appear under the name “three gunas”, and among alchemists the names and symbols of these Three Principles (Tria Principia) are as follows: "sulfur", "salt" And "mercury"("Mercury").

These substances should not be confused with ordinary substances known by the same names. The Three First Principles are closely related to each other and initially form a single and indivisible whole. But in this united state they remain only until the alchemist begins separation, the purpose of which is to divide the homogeneous mixture of the Origins into three separate components. These three components are then purified by the means of Art and reunited into a new whole of a higher order.

Sulfur (Coptic then, Old Greek theion, Latin sulfur).

It is dynamic, expanding, volatile, sour, unifying, masculine, paternal and fiery. Sulfur is emotions, feelings and passions that motivate us to life and activity. This is a symbol of the desire for positive changes and warmth of life. The whole process of transmutation depends on the correct application of this active principle. Fire is the most important of the elements in the art of alchemy. Sulfur is the essence of the Soul.

In practical alchemy, Sulfur is usually isolated from Mercury by distillation. Sulfur is the stabilizing aspect of Mercury, from which it is released and into which it is redissolved.

In mystical alchemy, Sulfur is the power that crystallizes the inspiration that is born from Mercury.

Salt (Coptic hemou, ancient Greek hals, Latin sal).

It is the principle, or substance, of form - a heavy and inert mineral body, forming part of the nature of all metals. It is the tendency to harden, fixate, shrink and crystallize. Salt is considered the carrier in which the properties of Sulfur and Mercury are fixed. She represents the essence of the Body. Sometimes it is simply called the Earth.

Mercury (Coptic thrim, ancient Greek hydrargos, Latin mercurius).

This is a watery, feminine principle associated with the principle of consciousness. Mercury is the universal Spirit or Life Force that permeates all living matter. This fluid and creative principle symbolizes the act of transmutation itself: Mercury is the transforming agent of the alchemical process. It represents the essence of the Spirit and is considered the most important of all the Three First Principles, a mediator between the other two, softening their extremes.
In practical alchemy, Mercury exists in two states. Both of them are liquid. The first state, volatile, is the one in which Mercury is before liberation from Sulfur. The second, fixed, is the one she comes to after reuniting with Sera. This final, stabilized state is sometimes called the Secret Fire.

Alchemical elements or elements:

Primus-TERRA: first element, Earth. Substance of life. Creation of Nature.

Secundus-AQUA.: second element, Water. Eternal life gained through dividing the universe into four parts.

Tertius-AER: third element, Air. Power gained through connection with the fifth element - Spirit.

Quartus- IGNIS: fourth element, Fire. Transmutation of matter.

An alchemist perceives metals in a completely different way than a metallurgist. For an alchemist, metals are living entities, just like animals or plants. And, like all living beings in nature, they undergo natural evolution: they are born, grow and multiply. Each metal contains its own “seed” - the key to further growth. Under certain conditions - special for each metal - this seed can be transformed, but only naturally. That is why in many alchemical treatises it is recommended again and again at certain stages to leave the transformation of a substance to the will of Nature - to wait until the process is completed naturally and not to interfere.

The science of alchemy plays an important role in the works of Aleister Crowley. Although Crowley is not known to have conducted alchemical experiments in a laboratory setting, his interest in spiritual alchemy is clear. In Crowley's writings, there are repeated references to alchemy and various alchemical terms (“Black Dragon”, “Green Lion”, “Moon Water”, Azoth, Rainbow, V.I.T.R.I.O.L., etc.). It was reading books on alchemy that awakened young Crowley’s interest in esotericism and forced him to take the path of initiation. It is also worth remembering that Aleister Crowley considered the famous alchemist Sir Edward Kelly (1555–1595) to be his reincarnation, perhaps because he “wrote from the perspective of a Magician.” Among the books Crowley recommended for reading were Ash Mezaref (Hebrew: The Smelter's Fire) and Michael Mayer's Atalanta Fugiens (1617). He himself wrote a small work on alchemy: Liber LV “The Chemical Tournament of Brother Perardua, in which he broke seven Spears,” which is a Magical and Mystical Path described in the language of alchemy. Alchemical symbols and ideas are also used in secret teachings relating to the highest grades of the O.T.O.

In his book Magick in Theory and Practice, Aleister Crowley stated that

“at its core, Alchemy is also a field of Magic and that it can be considered simply as a special case of a more general phenomenon - differing from evocative and talismanic Magic only in the meanings that it assigns to unknown parameters as part of its many-sided equations”.

In the alchemical process, Crowley saw an analogue of the transformation that a person undergoes initiations, when he is cleansed of filth and reveals in his true “I” the immortal mind, his True Will. Aleister Crowley actively uses alchemical images in describing the symbolism of Tarot cards and various magical operations (for example, Communion).