Meaning of the term: reference group. Standard (reference) groups

To define a social association that a particular individual consciously perceives as a reference standard for the formation of his personal qualities, behavior patterns and value orientations, it is customary to use the term “reference group”. This can be a real or fictitious group of people used by a person to evaluate and analyze himself, as well as the people around him.

Such grouped associations can perform a variety of functions, influencing an individual’s decisions, actions, behavior and attitude towards what is happening around him. What a “reference group” is, what exactly is meant by this concept and how significant it can be in the life of a particular person, we will describe in more detail below.

Basic terms and interesting facts

When talking about what the concept of “reference group” means, all existing definitions of this term should be given. For example, in sociology, which studies the formation and development of society, this phrase is understood as an association of people, which an individual perceives as a “reference point” for making decisions and assessing the environment. It can also be a group of ordinary people who are perceived by a person or group of people as role models.

In marketing, the same term hides the designation of a certain social circle that can influence (directly or indirectly) an individual in such a way that she will change her behavior pattern or attitude towards something. The concept of reference groups, studied in detail in sociology, slowly but surely moved into marketing and other areas of activity of modern man.

It is interesting to know that in psychology there is a similar definition for such formations. According to this scientific direction, the reference group is considered to be the group to which a person would like to belong, since he approves of the values and guidelines that this community follows.

If we omit the scientific terminology and speak in simple language, then the reference group is a group of people on whose opinions a person’s self-esteem, his behavior, form of thinking and beliefs depend. Thus, examples of such social circles could be associations of rich people for the poor, smart people for the less knowledgeable and educated, etc.

Each person tends to conduct self-assessment by comparing himself with a group of people that is a “reference standard” for him. Assessing this ratio, he will choose a model of behavior characteristic of a given social group.

However, if we take into account the fact that one person can be a member of several unique communities at once, the guidelines for his further activities and attitudes towards others may differ significantly. An individual may be a member of a reference group or may not have any connection with it. At the same time, the connection between the referent and her cannot be called stable, even if we are talking about a member group, an interaction group to which the person is directly related (this is the family and immediate environment).

As previously stated, the reference group may well be real. Such associations include a family circle, a sports team, as well as social communities that the person himself has allowed to evaluate himself. Imaginary communities may include bohemians, the elite of society. At the moment, the influence of an imaginary reference group on the behavior, attitude and self-esteem of an individual significantly exceeds the significance of a really existing one.

A person throughout his life, depending on the current situation, can choose a different reference sample each time for making a decision and forming a life guide.

Existing classifications of groups, characteristics of communities

There are several types of public associations, which are based on classifications based on external characteristics, structural differences and the interaction of the referent with a specific circle of people.

Thus, a reference group can be primary or secondary, depending on how large it is and how the participants interact in it.

Primary is a small community in which all participating individuals interact widely and constantly.
Secondary - a group that may vary in number of participants, but is characterized by periodic contacts of participants.

If we take the structure of reference formations as a basis, we can distinguish reference groups:

1. Informal - these are those in which there is no specific structure, but there are common interests that form the basis of associations. Such social formations can significantly influence an individual in the early period of his development and in old age.

2. Formal – these are associations whose structure is clearly regulated and spelled out in the relevant documents. Examples of such communities are political parties and workers.

Also, the reference group can be:

Positive when a person voluntarily strives to adopt the manners, style and rules of a community, identifying himself with individuals in this community.
Negative when the subject does not approve of the value guidelines of the community, against the background of which he rejects the connection with the group.

Each reference group is constructed in such a way that it always contains power that has privileges over other participants. Thus, it is able to incline individuals in the community to a certain model of behavior. There are several types of such influence on referents:

The power of coercion. The subject is influenced through punishment and cancellation of rewards (for example, a reprimand at work, which can significantly spoil the employee’s work record).
The power of reward (encouragement). The authorities achieve the desired behavior from participants, motivating them with rewards (promises from management to increase their salaries).
The power of self-identification. A technique that involves influencing the subject and his lifestyle through his desire to belong to a community.
The power is legitimate. Influence on the opinion and behavior of subjects is carried out through obtaining their consent that the authorities have legal grounds for the demand or request put forward.

Each person may have more than one reference group to which he may be directly or indirectly related. This could be a circle of family or friends, a music group, a sports team, etc. In most cases, a social association may not even be aware of how significant it is for a particular subject, while he is building a possible community opinion regarding himself.

There are also situations when, for the same subject, standard associations represent opposing value guidelines. In such cases, such referent influence can cause the development of intrapersonal conflicts. You can get rid of them by attracting professionals who can tactfully resolve the problem. Author: Elena Suvorova

G. Hyman discovered the phenomenon of the “reference group”. Hyman's experiments showed that some members of certain small groups (in this case, student groups) share norms of behavior that are not accepted in this group, but in some other group that they are guided by.

Reference groups - groups in which individuals are not really included, but whose norms they accept, Hyman called reference groups. The difference between these groups and real membership groups was even more clearly noted in the works of M. Sherif, where the concept of a reference group was associated with the “frame of reference” that an individual uses to compare his status with the status of other persons.

G. Kelly identified two ref functions. groups: comparative(as a standard for comparing your behavior with her) and normative(for its normative assessment).

Currently, the term “reference group” is used in two ways in the literature: sometimes as group opposed to membership group, sometimes like group arising within a membership group. In this second case, the reference group is defined as a “significant social circle”, i.e. as a circle of people selected from a real group as especially significant for the individual. In this case, a situation may arise when the norms adopted by the group become personally acceptable to the individual only when they are accepted by a “significant circle of friends,” i.e. an intermediate reference point appears, which the individual intends to measure up to. And this interpretation has a certain meaning, but, apparently, in this case we should talk not about “reference groups”, but about “reference” as a special property of relations in a group, when one of its members chooses as a starting point for their behavior and activities of a certain circle of people.

The division into membership and reference groups opens up an interesting perspective for applied research. Why does a person included in such membership groups as a school class or a sports team suddenly begin to focus not on the norms that are accepted in them, but on the norms of completely different groups in which he was initially not included at all (some dubious elements “ from the street").

The issue of reference groups is still awaiting its further development; there is a statement of which group is the reference group for the individual, but there is no explanation as to why it is.

53. Group dynamics in a small group

The term "group dynamics" can be (and is) used in three different ways.

1. First of all, this term refers to a certain direction of research of small groups in social psychology, i.e. K. Levin's school. Naturally, this means not only the set of problems studied in this school, but also the entire conceptual structure inherent to it, i.e. some form of solution to these problems.

2. The second meaning of the term is associated with the designation of certain techniques that can be used in the study of small groups and which were mainly developed in the Lewin school. However, these techniques are often later used in other theoretical frameworks, so the second meaning of the term is not necessarily tied to Lewin's school, but rather to specific types of laboratory experiment in which different characteristics of groups are revealed. "Group dynamics" in this case - a special type of laboratory experiment specifically designed to study group processes.

3. But there may be a third use of the concept, when the term “group dynamics” denotes in contrast to the statics of the group the totality of those dynamic processes that simultaneously occur in a group in a certain unit of time and which mark the movement of the group from stage to stage, i.e. its development.

The most important of these processes are the following. First of all small group formation process, and this may include not only the direct methods of group formation, but also such psychological mechanisms that make a group a group, for example group pressure phenomenon on the individual (which in traditional social psychology does not belong to “group dynamics”). Further, these are traditionally considered in “group dynamics” processes of group cohesion, leadership and group decision making with the exception that the entire set of processes of managing and directing a group is not limited to just the phenomenon of leadership and group decision-making, but includes many more mechanisms. Another aspect of dynamic processes is presented phenomena of group life that arise during the development of joint activities(the phenomena accompanying it require separate consideration). As a unique result of the development of a group, the formation of such a specific stage as a collective can be considered. The processes of team formation - from a socio-psychological perspective - can therefore also be attributed to the dynamic processes occurring in the group.

Standard (reference) groups

Key concepts of the topic

Reference group.

Social interaction group. Real reference group.

Imaginary reference group

as a result of social construction.

The individual's connection with reference groups.

Positive reference group.

Negative reference group.

The relative nature of reference groups.

Information reference group. Experts.

Self-identification group.

Value reference group.

Concept reference group was introduced into scientific circulation by Herbert Hymon in his work “Archives of Psychology” in 1942. By reference he understood the group that an individual uses for a comparative assessment of his own position or behavior. Haymon distinguished between the group to which an individual belongs and the reference or standard group, which serves as a criterion for comparison (Marshall 1996: 441).

The most extensive analysis of reference groups in the context of the functionalist tradition was given by Robert Merton and Alice Kitt in a work published in 1950.

An individual may belong to a reference group or be very far from it. Interaction group (R. Merton's term), or member group, - This is the immediate social environment of the individual. This is the group he belongs to. If we value membership in a given group, if we strive to gain a foothold in it and consider the norms and values of its subculture as the most authoritative, strive to be like the majority of its members, then this group can be considered as a reference group. In this case, the interaction group and the reference group simply coincide, but their qualitative characteristics are completely different. If we consider ourselves superior to the members of our group or consider ourselves as strangers in it, then no matter how closely we are connected with it, this group is not a reference group. In this case, the group does not offer attractive norms and values.

The reference group can be a real social group or imaginary , which is the result social construction , act as a statistical community, whose members may not even suspect that for some they are one cohesive group. Thus, for decades, for many Soviet people there was such a mythical reference group as “the West”, “America”.

The more ossified and closed a given society is, the more likely it is that an individual’s reference group is his social interaction group. Thus, in pre-capitalist societies, a class social structure dominated, in which most people were born into a certain class (a group with a social status established by laws) and remained in it all their lives, passing on their class status by inheritance. In such a society, for a peasant to compare himself with the court aristocracy and imitate it was the height of absurdity. Capitalist or state socialist (e.g. Soviet) societies are open to social mobility. This means that someone born into a peasant family has a chance of breaking through to the very top of the political, administrative or economic hierarchy. In such a society, it is quite reasonable for an individual to be at the bottom, but imitating those at the very top. In such a society, rapprochement with the reference group is potentially real. The "American Dream" as America's most important myth states that every American can become a president or a millionaire. American mythology is full of examples indicating the reality of this dream. Soviet mythology also contains many examples of heroes who rose from “simple workers and peasants” to the highest positions in the state. In post-Soviet society, the bulk of the country's richest people just yesterday were on the same floor as most of us.

The connection of an individual with reference groups is often unstable, mobile, and vague. This means that at different stages of his biography he may have different reference groups. In addition, when choosing different elements of a lifestyle and making different purchases, an individual can focus on different reference groups.

For example, if I am an athlete, then when choosing sportswear, a certain team or its stars may act as a reference group for me, but if I am not a fan, but just a normal athlete, then the opinion of a sports star on issues that go beyond sports are no longer authoritative. And when choosing toothpaste, I will listen to the dentist, but not my favorite champion.

Standard (reference) groups can be positive and negative. Positive reference group - this is that real or imaginary group that serves as a role model, an attractive standard. The closer an individual is to it in terms of lifestyle, the more satisfaction he feels. Negative reference group - this is a real or imaginary (constructed) group, acting as a repulsive example, this is a group, contact, association with which one strives to avoid.

The set of reference groups has relative character . This means that in a society consisting of many social groups and subcultures, there is no single set of positive and negative reference groups that is valid for everyone. That group, which is a role model for some people, is considered by others as an anti-standard (“God forbid we be like them”). In this case they say: “You dressed up like:.” In our society, such a “compliment” can be a comparison with a milkmaid, a collective farmer, a villager, a new Russian, a nun, a “tough” bandit, etc.

Reference groups are divided into several types: informational (sources of reliable information), self-identification, value.

An information reference group is a group of people whose information we trust. It doesn’t matter whether we fall into error or are close to the truth. The main distinguishing feature of such a group is that we trust the information coming from it. This group appears in two main forms:

a) Carriers of experience. Such a group can be people who have tried “their own skin” this product or service. We turn to their amateur experience to confirm or refute doubts regarding the brand of goods planned for purchase.

b) Experts , that is, specialists in this field. This is a group that is considered by others as the most knowledgeable in a particular area, whose judgment most accurately reflects the real qualities of a phenomenon, product, service, etc.

When does the need for an expert arise? It is turned to when a problematic situation arises within the framework of everyday life, when the flow of everyday life is disrupted (Ionin 1996: 97). A man ate all his life without thinking about his teeth. And suddenly they reminded him so much that he could not think about anything but teeth. The car drove for a number of years, and then stopped... The flow of normal life is disrupted, and our knowledge is not enough to get out of the problematic situation.

We also turn to experts to maintain the normal course of everyday life. Encyclopedists became extinct a little later than mammoths, so even the most outstanding of our contemporaries are amateurs in most areas with which they encounter. What can we say about the mass of ordinary people? Naturally, when choosing goods and services, we have no choice but to rely on the opinion of experts. I don’t understand anything about medicine, so I choose toothpastes, brushes, medications, relying mainly on the opinion of doctors. I am an amateur in radio engineering, so when choosing radio products I rely on the judgment of people who are or seem to me to be experts.

An expert's assessment can dramatically change the cost of a product. Thus, most paintings are bought by amateurs, because art criticism is a special science that requires long-term professional training, which ultimately does not lead to wealth. Those who have enough money to buy valuable paintings cannot, as a rule, combine their income-generating activities with a serious study of art. Therefore, the same painting exhibited on the Arbat or at a prestigious exhibition has a completely different price: in the first case, it is a product without a quality certificate, in the second, admission to a prestigious exhibition is a sign of quality for amateurs. The same situation applies to books published in a capital or provincial publishing house. For amateurs, the capital acts as a positive reference group, and the province as a negative one. Only an expert does not need someone else's opinion to select a product. However, an expert is always a narrow specialist, and outside his narrow sphere of competence he is an amateur.

The reference group of self-identification is the group to which the individual belongs and is under the pressure of its norms and values. He might have wanted to avoid this compulsion, but, as the saying goes, “to live with wolves is to howl like a wolf.” The group directly or indirectly forces him to adhere to a style of behavior, including consumption, that is considered as “appropriate” for a member of this group, and to avoid a style that is considered “indecent” or “strange” by the group.

A value reference group is a real or imaginary group of people who are considered by a given individual as bright carriers, exponents of the values that he shares. Since this group not only secretly sympathizes with these values, but actively professes them through its lifestyle and has moved much further along the path of realizing these values, the individual imitates this group and strives to follow the style of behavior accepted in it. He is not a member of this group, and is sometimes very far from it both in physical and social space. Most often, the role of such a reference group is played by the “stars” of sports, cinema, pop music and heroes, outstanding figures in the field to which a given individual gravitates.

(4) A utilitarian reference group is a group that has an arsenal of positive and negative sanctions, that is, it is capable of both rewarding and punishing an individual. A variety of real and imaginary social groups can act in this capacity.

For example, an employee of an institution dresses the way his boss likes, so as not to irritate him and not create obstacles to his own career. Before work, stepping on the throat of his own song, he does not drink vodka or eat garlic, even if he really wants to, because he knows that his boss has the power to fire him for such features of his consumption style. The young man selects a style of behavior that evokes sympathy, if not from everyone, then from a select part of the girls, or even just one, but the best. Girls in this case act as a utilitarian reference group that has such an arsenal of positive and negative sanctions as obvious and hidden manifestations of sympathy, love, antipathy, and contempt.

The influence of the reference group has a particularly strong effect on the behavior of a significant part of girls and women. It is among them that the willingness to make the greatest sacrifices, inconveniences in order to cause delight or simply the attention of that part of the men who are the reference group, or envy, approval from other women acting as the second reference group is especially noticeable.

Thus, doctors have long proven that high heels have a harmful effect on women’s health. However, again and again the fashion for them returns, and millions wear these beautiful but uncomfortable shoes. For what? As the king of London shoe fashion, Manolo Blahnik, explained, " high heels elevate a woman, make her strong in order to drive men crazy and conquer the world"(Maslov 6.11.97). Thus, the key to understanding women's consumer behavior often lies in the tastes of men.

This mechanism of group influence usually manifests itself in the presence of a number of conditions. (1) Most often, this type of reference group exerts influence when performing actions that are visible to others or leading to results that cannot be unnoticed by others (for example, buying outerwear). (2) The individual feels that those around him have at their disposal positive or negative sanctions towards him (approval - ridicule, etc.). (3) The individual is motivated to strive to obtain the rewards of the group and avoid punishment from its side (for example, strives to achieve a career or win the sympathy of the opposite sex) (Loudon and Bitta: 277).

When making various purchases, an individual experiences pressure from reference groups of varying strengths. Thus, when buying food, clothing and other essential goods in conditions of dire need, people do not look back at their reference group: hunger and cold dictate these purchases. However, given the choice of a specific type of essential commodity, the individual is already under the influence of his reference group.

Many products bear the imprint of prestige: various kinds of delicacies, expensive alcoholic drinks. Each group has its own table setting standards: if you want to be considered one of your own, set the table no lower than the standards accepted in this group (the influence of the self-identification group). If for the owners the value reference groups are in the West, then imported products of a specifically Western type (Coca-Cola, pickled corn, specific seasonings, etc.) prevail on the table. If the owners are guided by the customs of Russian antiquity, then the emphasis will be on domestic, simple products, and national cuisine. Similarly, a clothing brand is associated with a selected reference group. At the same time, essential items that are not to be shown to outsiders are selected with minimal influence from reference groups.

When purchasing items that are considered luxury in a given country, the influence of the reference group is strong across the board.

Items

necessity

Items

Public consumption

Essential items for public consumption

Russian influence

1) By type of product - weak (almost everyone consumes it).

2) On a brand - strong (a brand is a symbol of prestige).

Examples: watch, suit.

Luxury goods for public consumption.

Russian influence

1) On the type of product - strong (the product itself is a symbol).

2) For the brand - strong.

Examples: high-end cars, foreign resorts, precious jewelry.

Private consumption

Essential items for private use.

Russian influence

1) For the type of product - weak.

Examples: mattress, bed linen, underwear, etc.

Luxury goods for private consumption.

Russian influence

1) Based on the type of product - strong.

2) For the brand - weak.

Examples: computer games, food processor, electric knife.

Ionin L.G. Sociology of culture. M., 1996.

Loudon D., Bitta A.J. Della. Consumer Behavior. Concepts and Applications. Third edition. N.Y., 1988.

Peter J.P., Olson J.C. Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy. Third edition. Boston, Homewood, 1993.

Reference groups. The term “reference group” was first coined by social psychologist Mustafa Sherif in 1948 and means a real or conditional social community with which an individual relates himself as a standard, and on whose norms, opinions, values and assessments he is guided in his behavior and self-esteem (204, p. 93). A boy, playing the guitar or playing sports, is guided by the lifestyle and behavior of rock stars or sports idols. An employee in an organization, striving to make a career, is guided by the behavior of top management. It may also be noted that ambitious people who suddenly receive a lot of money tend to imitate the representatives of the upper classes in dress and manners.

Sometimes the reference group and the ingroup may coincide, for example, in the case when a teenager is guided by his company to a greater extent than by the opinion of teachers. At the same time, an outgroup can also be a reference group, and the examples given above illustrate this.

There are normative and comparative referent functions. groups. The normative function of the reference group is manifested in the fact that this group is the source of norms of behavior, social attitudes and value orientations of the individual. Thus, a little boy, wanting to quickly become an adult, tries to follow the norms and value orientations accepted among adults, and an emigrant coming to another country tries to master the norms and attitudes of the natives as quickly as possible, so as not to be a “black sheep.” , The comparative function is manifested in the fact that the reference group acts as a standard by which an individual can evaluate himself and others. Remember what we said about the concept of the mirror self. Ch. Cooley noted that if a child perceives the reaction of loved ones and believes their assessments, then a more mature person selects individual reference groups, belonging or not belonging to which is especially desirable for him, and forms an “I” image based on assessments of these groups.

A reference group is a social group that serves as a kind of standard for an individual, a frame of reference for himself and others, as well as a source for the formation of social norms and value orientations.

[edit]

Classification of groups

Based on the functions performed, normative and comparative reference groups are distinguished, based on the fact of group membership - presence groups and ideal, in accordance with the individual’s agreement or rejection of the norms and values of the group - positive and negative reference groups.

The normative reference group acts as a source of norms regulating the behavior of an individual, a guideline for a number of problems that are significant to him. In turn, the comparative reference group is a standard for the individual in assessing himself and others. The same reference group can act as both normative and comparative.

A presence group is a reference group of which an individual is a member. An ideal reference group is a group whose opinion an individual is guided by in his behavior, in his assessment of events that are important to him, in his subjective relations with other people, but of which he is not a member for some reason. Such a group is especially attractive to him. An ideal reference group can be either really existing in a social environment or fictitious (in this case, the standard of subjective assessments and life ideals of an individual are literary heroes, historical figures of the distant past, etc.).

If the social norms and value orientations of a positive reference group fully correspond to the ideas about the norms and values of the individual, then the value system of a negative reference group, with the same degree of significance and importance of the assessments and opinions of this group, is alien to the individual and is opposite to his values. Therefore, in his behavior he tries to receive a negative assessment, “disapproval” of his actions and position from this group.

In sociology and social psychology, the concept of “reference group” is used mainly to explain the socio-psychological mechanisms involved in the formation of values and normative regulation of the individual in the individual consciousness. In this regard, it is of interest for sociological research related to the study of the effectiveness of pedagogical and propaganda influences, since the ability to find and identify reference groups significantly simplifies the work of studying the orientation of the individual and the search for ways to purposefully influence its formation.

The concept of a reference group

The concept of a reference group was introduced into scientific circulation by Herbert Hymon in his work “Archives of Psychology” in 1942. By reference he understood the group that an individual uses for a comparative assessment of his own position or behavior. Haymon distinguished between the group to which an individual belongs and the reference or standard group, which serves as a criterion for comparison (Marshall 1996: 441).

The most extensive analysis of reference groups in the context of the functionalist tradition was given by Robert Merton and Alice Kitt in a work published in 1950.

Typology of reference groups

An individual may belong to a reference group or be very far from it. The interaction group (R. Merton's term), or membership group, is the immediate social environment of the individual. This is the group he belongs to. If we value membership in a given group, if we strive to gain a foothold in it and consider the norms and values of its subculture as the most authoritative, strive to be like the majority of its members, then this group can be considered as a reference group. In this case, the interaction group and the reference group simply coincide, but their qualitative characteristics are completely different. If we consider ourselves superior to the members of our group or consider ourselves as strangers in it, then no matter how closely we are connected with it, this group is not a reference group. In this case, the group does not offer attractive norms and values.

The reference group can be a real social group or an imaginary one, which is the result of social construction, acting as a statistical community, the members of which may not even suspect that for someone they are one cohesive group. Thus, for decades, for many Soviet people there was such a mythical reference group as “the West”, “America”.

Standard (reference) groups can be positive and negative. A positive reference group is that real or imagined group that serves as a role model, an attractive standard. The closer an individual is to it in terms of lifestyle, the more satisfaction he feels. A negative reference group is a real or imaginary (constructed) group that acts as a repulsive example; it is a group of contact or association with which one strives to avoid.

The set of reference groups is relative. This means that in a society consisting of many social groups and subcultures, there is no single set of positive and negative reference groups that is valid for everyone. That group, which is a role model for some people, is considered by others as an anti-standard (“God forbid we be like them”). In this case they say: “You dressed up like:.” In our society, such a “compliment” can be a comparison with a milkmaid, a collective farmer, a villager, a new Russian, a nun, a “tough” bandit, etc.

Reference groups are divided into several types: informational (sources of reliable information), self-identification, value.

b) Experts, that is, specialists in a given field. This is a group that is considered by others as the most knowledgeable in a particular area, whose judgment most accurately reflects the real qualities of a phenomenon, product, service, etc.

Thus, doctors have long proven that high heels have a harmful effect on women’s health. However, again and again the fashion for them returns, and millions wear these beautiful but uncomfortable shoes. For what? As the king of London shoe fashion, Manolo Blahnik, explained, “high heels elevate a woman, make her strong in order to drive men crazy and conquer the world” (Maslov 6.11.97). Thus, the key to understanding women's consumer behavior often lies in the tastes of men.

Social facilitation (from the Latin socialis - public and facilitare - to facilitate) is a socio-psychological phenomenon. Increasing the productivity of an activity, its speed and quality, when it is performed either simply in the presence of other people, or in a competitive situation.

Social facilitation [from English. facilitate - to facilitate] - increasing the efficiency (in terms of speed and productivity) of a person’s activity in conditions of its functioning in the presence of other people who, in the mind of the subject, act as either a simple observer or an individual or individuals competing with him. Social facilitation was first recorded and described at the end of the 19th century (V. M. Bekhterev, F. Allport, L. V. Lange, etc.). One of the cases of identifying the phenomenon of social facilitation was a situation recorded by observers at a bicycle track (unlike a regular stadium, a bicycle track is designed in such a way that the stands with spectators are located along only one side of the track). It turned out that, regardless of the tactical plans agreed with the coach for the fight for championship in the race, it is in front of the stands with spectators that the athletes involuntarily accelerate, even to the detriment of a possible victory, which, as a necessary condition, would imply some “pre-acceleration slowdown.” In some cases, the presence of other people who do not interfere with an individual’s actions leads to a deterioration in the results of his activities. This phenomenon is called social inhibition. It has been absolutely clearly established that the phenomenon of “facilitation - inhibition” manifests itself in fundamentally different ways in conditions of intellectually complex and simple, essentially mechanical activity. Thus, in the first case, the presence of observers most often leads to a decrease in the qualitative success of the activity carried out by the subject, and in the second - to a clear increase in the quantitative indicators of its implementation. It should be noted that the severity of the socio-psychological phenomenon “facilitation - inhibition” largely depends on gender, age, status-role and a number of other social and socio-psychological characteristics of the individual. At the same time, it is necessary to understand that such “inclusion” in the analysis process of additional specifying-personifying variables poses the task for the researcher at the stage of interpreting empirical data with the help of additional experimental efforts to differentiate the phenomenon of “facilitation - inhibition” and the phenomenon of real personal personalization. It is necessary to distinguish between the essential discrepancy between the phenomena of facilitation and personalization. If in a “personalization” situation the image of a specific, to one degree or another, “significant other” is updated, then in a “facilitation” situation only the very fact of the presence of another is actualized, not significant as a specific person, but significant only because he is present and because that he is "different".

Social inhibition (from Latin socialis - social and inhibere - to restrain) is a socio-psychological phenomenon. A decrease in activity productivity, speed and quality when it is performed in the presence of other people. It can manifest itself even when others are not present in reality, but only in the imagination.

Conformism (from late Latin conformis - “similar”, “conformable”) - passive, uncritical acceptance of the prevailing order, norms, values, traditions, laws, etc. Manifests itself in a change in behavior and attitudes in accordance with the change in the position of the majority or itself majority. There are external conformism and internal conformism. Nonconformism can be seen as conformity to the norms and values of a minority.

In everyday use, the words “conformism” and “conformal” most often have a negative connotation, focusing attention on the negative role of conformity. Because of this false dilemma, nonconformity is often attributed to the absence of the negative qualities inherent in conformity, and the positive qualities that conformity lacks.

Factors that determine conformity

the nature of interpersonal relationships (friendly or conflicting)

the need and ability to make independent decisions

size of the team (the smaller it is, the stronger the conformity)

the presence of a cohesive group that influences other team members

current situation or problem being solved (complex issues can be resolved collectively)

the formal status of a person in a group (the higher the formal status, the less manifestations of conformity)

informal status of a person in a group (a non-conforming informal leader quickly loses his leader status)

[edit]

Automatic conformity

Automatic conformism is one of the protective behavior programs, the task of which is to eliminate the contradiction between the individual and society due to the individual’s loss of his unique human qualities.

In some societies, an individual's protective behavior includes declaring (explicitly or implicitly) that he is a patriot, and social adaptation is passed off as patriotism. In particular, standing during the playing of the national anthem can be as much an expression of patriotism as it is automatic conformity.

Reference group": sometimes like group, opposing group membership, sometimes like group, arising within groups membership... " referential group": sometimes like group, opposing group membership, sometimes like group, arising within groups membership...

a real or imaginary group that serves as an individual’s model, standard, frame of reference for evaluating oneself, etc., as well as one of the foundations for the formation of social attitudes, norms of behavior and value orientations. This is a group to which a person belongs consciously. R.g. must meet the following meanings: 1) the group towards which the individual is oriented in his actions; 2) a group that serves as an individual’s model, standard or criterion for assessing personal behavior; 3) a group that an individual seeks to join and become a member of; 4) a group whose views and values serve as a kind of standards for an individual, who is not a member. its direct member. Individual's choice of R.g. and relating oneself to it fulfills two main functions. functions: socialization and social. comparison, dynamic aspect of the phenomenon. the individual's attitude towards social mobility (if the R.g. of an individual does not coincide with his membership group, the R.g. is a guideline for his social movement). There are R.g. real and imaginary. Real R.g. - this is a group of people that serves as a standard for an individual to implement optimal social networks. norms and values; imaginary - his value and normative orientations, his life ideals reflected in the consciousness of the individual, appearing in the form of personalized standards and ideals. These personified images of people represent “internal audience,” to which a person focuses in his thoughts and actions. In practice, the concept of R.g. used in the study of social mobility, personality adaptation processes to various social environments, the effectiveness of mass communication. Lit.: Rudensky E.V. Social Psychology. M.; Novosibirsk, 1997; Frolov S.S. Sociology. M., 1997. L.G. Skulmovskaya

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

REFERENCE GROUP

from lat. refere - compare, compare, report) - a real or imaginary social community that acts for an individual as a standard, a role model; a group he would like to belong to. Both a small and a large social group can act as a reference group. The concept of “reference group” was first introduced in the 30s. 20th century G. Hyman. For a child, the reference group is the family, for a teenager - a community of peers, for a young person - often students in general, for an adult - representatives of a specific prestigious profession. Thus, for a novice athlete, the reference group is professional hockey players, football or basketball players, for a novice scientist - outstanding luminaries of science, etc. The higher the level of social maturity of an individual, the more demands he places on the community that he chooses as a reference group. And vice versa, the lower the degree of social maturity, the worse the quality of the chosen reference group. Young people who do not have a secondary or higher education, who have not made a successful career, who were brought up in single-parent or unsuccessful families, often take the path of crime also because the reference group they seek to imitate are local “authorities”, people with a criminal past.

Initially, the term “reference group” denoted a community of which an individual is not a member, but to which he strives to belong. Later, it began to be interpreted more broadly, including the group to which the individual belongs and whose opinion is authoritative for him. The correct choice of reference group plays two important social roles - comparison and socialization. When comparing himself with a reference group, the individual evaluates his current social position and chooses the desired benchmark for future advancement or building a social career. In the process of socialization, he assimilates the norms and values of the reference community, that is, he first identifies himself with it, and then internalizes (assimilates) its cultural patterns of behavior. The reference group also functions as a center of social gravity, when an individual, dissatisfied with his group of belonging, moves up the social ladder to another. Social mobility is facilitated by the presence of a center of repulsion - the antipode of the reference group. For young people today, this is the army, which they strive not to get into and therefore direct their efforts to enroll in a university that provides a deferment. The reference group also performs the function of a “support group”, increasing the social well-being of the individual and providing him with physical protection.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓