Tropical Africa South Africa. Subregions of Northern and Tropical Africa

Africa is a huge continent, the main inhabitants of which are people, which is why it is called “black”. Tropical Africa (about 20 million km 2) covers a vast territory of the continent, and divides it with North Africa into two parts unequal in area. Despite the significance and vastness of the territory of tropical Africa, there are the smallest of this continent, whose main occupation is agriculture. Some countries are so poor that they do not have railways, and movement along them is carried out only with the help of cars and trucks, while residents move on foot, carrying loads on their heads, sometimes covering considerable distances.

Tropical Africa is a collective image. It contains the most paradoxical ideas about this region. These include the humid and tropical deserts of Africa, and huge wide rivers, and wild tribes. For the latter, the main occupation is still fishing and gathering. All this is tropical, which would be incomplete without its unique flora and fauna.

Tropical forests occupy a large area, which, however, decreases every year due to the deforestation of this precious pearl of nature. The reasons are prosaic: the local population needs new areas for arable land, in addition, the forests contain valuable tree species, the wood of which brings good profits on the market in developed countries.

Covered with vines, with dense lush vegetation and unique endemic flora and fauna, they are shrinking under the pressure of Homo sapiens and turning into tropical deserts. The local population, mainly engaged in arable farming and livestock farming, does not even think about high technology - it is not for nothing that the coat of arms of many countries still contains the image of a hoe as the main tool of labor. All residents of large and small villages, except men, are engaged in farming.

The entire female population, children and old people, grow crops that serve as the main food (sorghum, corn, rice), as well as tubers (cassava, sweet potato), from which flour and cereals are then made, and cakes are baked. In more developed areas, more expensive crops are grown for export: coffee, cocoa, which is sold to developed countries as whole beans and pressed oil, oil palm, peanuts, as well as spices and sisal. The latter is used to weave carpets, make strong ropes, ropes and even clothes.

And if it is so difficult to breathe in the humid equatorial forests due to the constant evaporation of large-leaved plants and the mass of water and air moisture, the tropical deserts of Africa are practically devoid of water. The main area that turns into desert over time is the Sahel zone, which stretches across 10 countries. For several years, not a single rain fell there, and deforestation, as well as the natural death of vegetation, led to the fact that this territory turned into a barren wasteland almost scorched by the winds and covered with cracks. Residents of these places have lost their basic means of livelihood and are forced to move to other places, leaving these territories as zones of environmental disaster.

Tropical Africa is a unique part, comprising a vast territory, unique and original. It is completely different from North Africa. Tropical Africa still remains a territory full of secrets and mysteries; it is a place that, once seen, one cannot help but fall in love with.

Africa is a part of the world with an area of 30.3 million km 2 with islands, this is the second place after Eurasia, 6% of the entire surface of our planet and 20% of the land.

Geographical position

Africa is located in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres (most of it), a small part in the Southern and Western. Like all large fragments of the ancient continent, Gondwana has a massive outline, with no large peninsulas or deep bays. The length of the continent from north to south is 8 thousand km, from west to east - 7.5 thousand km. In the north it is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, in the northeast by the Red Sea, in the southeast by the Indian Ocean, in the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Africa is separated from Asia by the Suez Canal, and from Europe by the Strait of Gibraltar.

Main geographical characteristics

Africa lies on an ancient platform, which causes its flat surface, which in some places is dissected by deep river valleys. On the coast of the mainland there are small lowlands, the northwest is the location of the Atlas Mountains, the northern part, almost entirely occupied by the Sahara Desert, is the Ahaggar and Tibetsi highlands, the east is the Ethiopian Highlands, the southeast is the East African Plateau, the extreme south is the Cape and Drakensberg mountains The highest point in Africa is the Kilimanjaro volcano (5895 m, Masai plateau), the lowest is 157 meters below ocean level in Lake Assal. Along the Red Sea, in the Ethiopian Highlands and to the mouth of the Zambezi River, the world's largest crustal fault stretches, which is characterized by frequent seismic activity.

The following rivers flow through Africa: Congo (Central Africa), Niger (West Africa), Limpopo, Orange, Zambezi (South Africa), as well as one of the deepest and longest rivers in the world - the Nile (6852 km), flowing from the south to north (its sources are on the East African Plateau, and it flows, forming a delta, into the Mediterranean Sea). Rivers are characterized by high water content exclusively in the equatorial belt, due to the large amount of precipitation there; most of them are characterized by high flow rates and have many rapids and waterfalls. In lithospheric faults filled with water, lakes were formed - Nyasa, Tanganyika, the largest freshwater lake in Africa and the second largest lake in area after Lake Superior (North America) - Victoria (its area is 68.8 thousand km 2, length 337 km, maximum depth - 83 m), the largest salty endorheic lake is Chad (its area is 1.35 thousand km 2, located on the southern edge of the world's largest desert, the Sahara).

Due to Africa's location between two tropical zones, it is characterized by high total solar radiation, which gives the right to call Africa the hottest continent on Earth (the highest temperature on our planet was recorded in 1922 in Al-Aziziya (Libya) - +58 C 0 in the shadow).

On the territory of Africa, such natural zones are distinguished as evergreen equatorial forests (the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, the Congo basin), in the north and south turning into mixed deciduous-evergreen forests, then there is a natural zone of savannas and woodlands, extending to Sudan, East and South Africa, to In northern and southern Africa, savannas give way to semi-deserts and deserts (Sahara, Kalahari, Namib). In the southeastern part of Africa there is a small zone of mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, on the slopes of the Atlas Mountains there is a zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs. Natural zones of mountains and plateaus are subject to the laws of altitudinal zonation.

African countries

The territory of Africa is divided between 62 countries, 54 are independent, sovereign states, 10 dependent territories belonging to Spain, Portugal, Great Britain and France, the rest are unrecognized, self-proclaimed states - Galmudug, Puntland, Somaliland, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). For a long time, Asian countries were foreign colonies of various European states and only gained independence by the middle of the last century. Depending on its geographical location, Africa is divided into five regions: Northern, Central, Western, Eastern and Southern Africa.

List of African countries

Nature

Mountains and plains of Africa

Most of the African continent is plain. There are mountain systems, highlands and plateaus. They are presented:

the Atlas Mountains in the northwestern part of the continent;
the Tibesti and Ahaggar highlands in the Sahara Desert;
Ethiopian Highlands in the eastern part of the mainland;
Drakensberg Mountains in the south.

The highest point of the country is the Kilimanjaro volcano, 5,895 m high, belonging to the East African Plateau in the southeastern part of the continent...

Deserts and savannas

The largest desert zone of the African continent is located in the northern part. This is the Sahara Desert. On the southwest side of the continent is another smaller desert, the Namib, and from there into the continent to the east there is the Kalahari Desert.

The savannah territory occupies the bulk of Central Africa. In area it is much larger than the northern and southern parts of the mainland. The territory is characterized by the presence of pastures typical of savannas, low shrubs and trees. The height of herbaceous vegetation varies depending on the amount of precipitation. These can be practically desert savannas or tall grasses, with a grass cover from 1 to 5 m in height...

Rivers

The longest river in the world, the Nile, is located on the African continent. The direction of its flow is from south to north.

The list of major water systems of the mainland includes the Limpopo, Zambezi and Orange River, as well as the Congo, which flows through Central Africa.

On the Zambezi River is the famous Victoria Falls, 120 meters high and 1,800 meters wide...

Lakes

The list of large lakes on the African continent includes Lake Victoria, which is the second largest freshwater body of water in the world. Its depth reaches 80 m, and its area is 68,000 square km. Two more large lakes of the continent: Tanganyika and Nyasa. They are located in faults of lithospheric plates.

There is Lake Chad in Africa, which is one of the world's largest endorheic relict lakes that have no connection with the world's oceans...

Seas and oceans

The African continent is washed by the waters of two oceans: the Indian and the Atlantic. Also off its shores are the Red and Mediterranean Seas. From the Atlantic Ocean in the southwestern part, the waters form the deep Gulf of Guinea.

Despite the location of the African continent, the coastal waters are cool. This is influenced by the cold currents of the Atlantic Ocean: the Canary in the north and the Bengal in the southwest. From the Indian Ocean, the currents are warm. The largest are Mozambique, in northern waters, and Agulhas, in southern...

Forests of Africa

Forests make up a little more than a quarter of the entire territory of the African continent. Here are subtropical forests growing on the slopes of the Atlas Mountains and the valleys of the ridge. Here you can find holm oak, pistachio, strawberry tree, etc. Coniferous plants grow high in the mountains, represented by Aleppo pine, Atlas cedar, juniper and other types of trees.

Closer to the coast there are cork oak forests; in the tropical region, evergreen equatorial plants are common, for example, mahogany, sandalwood, ebony, etc...

Nature, plants and animals of Africa

The vegetation of the equatorial forests is diverse, with about 1000 species of various types of trees growing here: ficus, ceiba, wine tree, oil palm, wine palm, banana palm, tree ferns, sandalwood, mahogany, rubber trees, Liberian coffee tree, etc. . Many species of animals, rodents, birds and insects live here, living directly on the trees. On the ground live: brush-eared pigs, leopards, African deer - a relative of the okapi giraffe, large apes - gorillas...

40% of Africa's territory is occupied by savannas, which are huge steppe areas covered with forbs, low, thorny bushes, milkweed, and isolated trees (tree-like acacias, baobabs).

Here there is the largest concentration of such large animals as: rhinoceros, giraffe, elephant, hippopotamus, zebra, buffalo, hyena, lion, leopard, cheetah, jackal, crocodile, hyena dog. The most numerous animals of the savannah are herbivores such as: hartebeest (antelope family), giraffe, impala or black-footed antelope, various types of gazelles (Thomson's, Grant's), blue wildebeest, and in some places rare jumping antelopes - springboks - are also found.

The vegetation of deserts and semi-deserts is characterized by poverty and unpretentiousness; these are small thorny bushes and separately growing tufts of herbs. The oases are home to the unique Erg Chebbi date palm, as well as plants that are resistant to drought conditions and salt formation. In the Namib Desert, unique plants such as Welwitschia and Nara grow, the fruits of which are eaten by porcupines, elephants and other desert animals.

Animals here include various species of antelopes and gazelles, adapted to the hot climate and capable of traveling vast distances in search of food, many species of rodents, snakes, and turtles. Lizards. Among the mammals: spotted hyena, common jackal, maned sheep, Cape hare, Ethiopian hedgehog, Dorcas gazelle, sabre-horned antelope, Anubis baboon, wild Nubian ass, cheetah, jackal, fox, mouflon, there are resident and migratory birds.

Climatic conditions

Seasons, weather and climate of African countries

The central part of Africa, through which the equator line passes, is in an area of low pressure and receives sufficient moisture; the territories north and south of the equator are in the subequatorial climate zone, this is a zone of seasonal (monsoon) moisture and an arid desert climate. The far north and south are in the subtropical climate zone, the south receives precipitation brought by air masses from the Indian Ocean, the Kalahari Desert is located here, the north has minimal precipitation due to the formation of a high pressure area and the characteristics of the movement of trade winds, the largest desert in the world is the Sahara, where the amount precipitation is minimal, in some areas it does not fall at all...

Resources

Natural Resources of Africa

In terms of water resources, Africa is considered one of the poorest continents in the world. The average annual volume of water is only sufficient to satisfy primary needs, but this does not apply to all regions.

Land resources are represented by large areas with fertile lands. Only 20% of all possible lands are cultivated. The reason for this is the lack of adequate water volume, soil erosion, etc.

African forests are a source of timber, including valuable species. The countries in which they grow, export raw materials. Resources are being used unwisely and ecosystems are being destroyed little by little.

In the depths of Africa there are deposits of minerals. Among those sent for export: gold, diamonds, uranium, phosphorus, manganese ores. There are significant reserves of oil and natural gas.

Energy-intensive resources are widely available on the continent, but they are not used due to the lack of proper investment...

Among the developed industrial sectors of the countries of the African continent, the following can be noted:

the mining industry, which exports minerals and fuels;
the oil refining industry, distributed mainly in South Africa and North Africa;
chemical industry specializing in the production of mineral fertilizers;
as well as the metallurgical and engineering industries.

The main agricultural products are cocoa beans, coffee, corn, rice and wheat. Oil palm is grown in tropical regions of Africa.

Fishing is poorly developed and accounts for only 1-2% of the total agricultural output. Livestock production indicators are also not high and the reason for this is the infection of livestock by tsetse flies...

Culture

Peoples of Africa: culture and traditions

There are approximately 8,000 peoples and ethnic groups living in 62 African countries, totaling approximately 1.1 billion people. Africa is considered the cradle and ancestral home of human civilization; it was here that the remains of ancient primates (hominids) were found, which, according to scientists, are considered the ancestors of people.

Most peoples in Africa can number several thousand people or several hundred living in one or two villages. 90% of the population are representatives of 120 nations, their number is more than 1 million people, 2/3 of them are peoples with a population of more than 5 million people, 1/3 are peoples with a population of more than 10 million people (this is 50% of the total population of Africa) - Arabs , Hausa, Fulbe, Yoruba, Igbo, Amhara, Oromo, Rwanda, Malagasy, Zulu...

There are two historical and ethnographic provinces: North African (the predominance of the Indo-European race) and Tropical African (the majority of the population is the Negroid race), it is divided into such areas as:

West Africa. Peoples speaking the Mande languages (Susu, Maninka, Mende, Vai), Chadian (Hausa), Nilo-Saharan (Songai, Kanuri, Tubu, Zaghawa, Mawa, etc.), Niger-Congo languages (Yoruba, Igbo, Bini, Nupe, Gbari, Igala and Idoma, Ibibio, Efik, Kambari, Birom and Jukun, etc.);
Equatorial Africa. Inhabited by Buanto-speaking peoples: Duala, Fang, Bubi (Fernandans), Mpongwe, Teke, Mboshi, Ngala, Como, Mongo, Tetela, Cuba, Kongo, Ambundu, Ovimbundu, Chokwe, Luena, Tonga, Pygmies, etc.;
South Africa. Rebellious peoples and speakers of Khoisani languages: Bushmen and Hottentots;
East Africa. Bantu, Nilotes and Sudanese people groups;
Northeast Africa. Peoples speaking Ethio-Semitic (Amhara, Tigre, Tigra), Cushitic (Oromo, Somali, Sidamo, Agaw, Afar, Konso, etc.) and Omotian languages (Ometo, Gimirra, etc.);
Madagascar. Malagasy and Creoles.

In the North African province, the main peoples are considered to be Arabs and Berbers, belonging to the southern European minor race, mainly professing Sunni Islam. There is also an ethno-religious group of Copts, who are direct descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, they are Monophysite Christians.

Part of Africa located south of the Sahara.

Ancient history According to most scientists, Africa is the cradle of humanity. Finds of early hominids there are up to 3 million years old. A number of finds ranging in age from 1.6 to 1.2 million years belong to the species of hominids that, in the process of evolution, led to the emergence of Homo sapiens. The formation of ancient people took place in the grassy savannah zone, then they spread throughout the continent. The tools of the Acheulean culture are fairly evenly distributed throughout Africa. However, due to the unique historical conditions and natural environment, the archaeological cultures of Africa are not always comparable with traditional nomenclature). The Late Stone Age in Africa was characterized by a transition from hunting and gathering to a productive economy. The transition to agriculture and cattle breeding began in different regions at different times, but overall ended in most territories by the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. Towards the end of the ancient period, iron tools became widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. Bronze Age cultures did not develop on the African continent, but rather a transition took place from the Neolithic stone industry to iron tools. Most scientists believe that iron metallurgy was borrowed from Western Asia ca. mid-1st millennium BC e. From the Nile Valley, iron metallurgy gradually spread to the west and southwest. The earliest Iron Age culture south of the Sahara is the Nok culture (Central Nigeria, 5th century BC - 3rd century AD). Iron industry in Central and Eastern. Africa dates back to approximately the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. The appearance of iron in the south of the territory of the modern Democratic Republic of the Congo (in the upper reaches of the Lualaba River and in the Shaba region) is also dated. OK. V-IX centuries In Shaba and in the south of modern Nigeria, independent centers of copper smelting and processing emerged. The spread of iron tools, facilitating the clearing of land for crops, contributed to the development of new areas previously inaccessible to human habitation, primarily the tropical forest zones on both sides of the equator. The process of mass migration to the south and southeast of peoples speaking languages of the Bantu family began, as a result they settled throughout Africa south of the equator. During these migrations, which continued until the beginning of the 2nd millennium, the Bantu moved bypassing the zone of equatorial forests, and individual groups of them developed forest areas bordering the savanna. Having bypassed the forest zone, the Bantu pushed the ancient population of the east and southeast of the mainland to the north and south. In southern Africa, the spread of Iron Age agriculture and tools is also associated with migrations of Bantu peoples there. Their gradual spread across the southern part of the continent lasted for centuries. It came in two streams. One moved along the Atlantic coast and reached modern Namibia. Other groups moved in three ways: to the territory of modern Zambia, to the territory of modern Zimbabwe through Malawi, and to the territory of the modern KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa through Mozambique. By the 3rd century. The Bantu reached the borders of modern South Africa, and by the 4th century. spread across a number of its territories. The Bantu were highly organized peoples with a developed social hierarchy, their relations with the San (Bushmen) and Koi (Hottentots, Nama) of the South. Africa included both peaceful coexistence and war. Displacement of the San into the regions of the South with unfavorable natural conditions. Africa had a retarding effect on the development of their economy and social organization; they never created a productive economy. OK. 9th century BC e., on the territory of Kush in Lower Nubia, the state of Meroe arose, which soon extended its power to Upper Egypt. In the VI century. BC e - VIII century n. e. Meroe was the largest center of ferrous metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa; bronze and gold metallurgy and jewelry craft also developed. In ancient times, the peoples of Tropical Africa maintained trade relations with the Mediterranean, Western and Southern regions. Asia. Precious metals, precious stones, exotic animals, and later slaves were exported from Africa. Salt, grain, and handicrafts were imported. By the turn of the new era, the Sahara had finally turned into a desert, so it played an important role in the development and strengthening of ties between Western societies. and Central Sudan from the North. Africa and the Nile Valley were influenced by the use of the camel, imported from Asia Minor to the North, for trans-Saharan transport. Africa by the Romans. There were also maritime contacts in the Indian Ocean, as evidenced by the large migration at the beginning of the new era from the South. Asian population groups of Indonesian origin on the island. Madagascar, which became one of the foundations of the Malagasy ethnic group. Three regions of Afro-Mediterranean and Afro-Asian contacts have emerged: the Nile Valley, West. and Central Sudan, coastal areas of the East. Africa. In the Middle Ages and Modern times, the social organization of the peoples of Africa was diverse. Along with states that were large on a local scale, there existed the so-called primitive periphery - peoples who did not create any social structures other than communal-tribal ones. A major role was played by the geographical factor - soil fertility, proximity to external centers of civilization, etc. The main unit of society was and remains the community, which, as a rule, is an association of several family and clan groups. Even in modern times, for most African peoples, the transition of the community from tribal to neighboring was not completely completed. A number of reasons contributed to the emergence of supra-communal structures. In the supra-communal structure, as a rule, the “best” community was singled out, from which supra-communal leaders emerged—the conical clan. A universal structure for all humanity on the path to the formation of a state is the chiefdom, an ethnically homogeneous structure, familiar with social and property inequality, division of labor and headed by a leader, often sacralized. The chiefdom was a relatively complex structure that had several levels of government - central, regional and local. Social inequality in the chiefdom is not very pronounced - the life of the leader is not very different in quality from the life of his subjects. The states that emerged in pre-colonial Africa were the early states (with the exception of Ethiopia). They had a clear administrative-territorial division; they were headed by a hereditary supreme ruler, who was often deified by his subjects or was the high priest. The population of early states, as a rule, belonged to different peoples - the “main” and the conquered. The institutions of clan society harmoniously grew into early African states; clan aristocracy and family ties played a large role. Western Sudan Sudan in a geographical sense is a part of Tropical Africa, stretching in a wide belt from west to east of the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to Ethiopia. Conditional boundary West. and Vost. Sudan - lake Chad. In the West Sudan in the IV-XVI centuries. the states of Ghana, Mali and Songhai succeeded each other. Ghana flourished in the 7th–9th centuries, Mali in the 12th–14th centuries, and Songhai in the 15th–16th centuries. From the 13th century Islam became the state religion in Mali, and then in Songhai. In the second half of the 15th century. Songhai subjugated the main trading and cultural centers of the West. Sudan - Timbuktu and Djenne. To the south in the XIV-XV centuries. Several states of the Mossi people arose, the first of which was Ouagadougou. In the VIII-IX centuries. arose by the middle of the 13th century. The state of Kanem to the east of the lake reached its greatest prosperity. Chad. At the end of the 13th century. the state fell into decay from the end of the 14th century. its center moved to the southwest of the lake. Chad in the region Born. The Bornu state reached its greatest power at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. In the XII-XIII centuries. Migration to the West has increased. Sudan of the Fulani people. Fulbe (Fulani, Pel) is one of the mysteries of the region. Anthropologically, they differ sharply from their neighbors with finer facial features and lighter skin, but they speak one of the local languages. Some scientists consider the Fulani to be newcomers from the Vost region. Sudan - Ethiopia. At the end of the 14th century. In Masina in the middle Niger Delta, the Fulani state was formed in the 16th-17th centuries. subjected to attacks by neighbors, which caused a chain of new Fulani migrations. Hausa statehood originated in the 13th century, and in the 14th-15th centuries. Islam spread. The military-political class and clergy grew. In the Middle Ages, the Hausan Emirates were in the sphere of influence of Mali, and then of the Songhai Empire. It was from there, from Timbuktu, that Arabic writing came, on the basis of which the Hausa created their own alphabet - Ajam. After the fall of the Songhai Empire in 1591, the centers of trans-Saharan trade and Muslim theology moved to the Hausan emirates. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the cities of Katsina and Kano rise in the 18th century. — Zamfara and Gobir in the west of the Hausa Country. But in 1764 Gobir defeated Zamfara and became, along with Katsina, the main of the Hausan city-states. In the West The Fulani have been settled in Sudan since the 13th-14th centuries. on the territory of several modern states. They created states on the Fouta Toro plateau (Senegal) and the Fouta Jalon plateau (Guinea). In 1727-1728, the Fulani began jihad under the leadership of Ibrahim Sambegu Bariya. The local residents were assimilated by the Fulani. The established state was characterized by a high level of cultural development. Writing has spread widely here, not only in Arabic, but also in the Fulani language. The country was ruled by the supreme head of the Almami, who was elected by the Council, which in turn was elected by the Fulban nobility. The emergence of the Sokoto Caliphate was associated with the name of Osman dan Fodio (1754-1817). He was the son of a Koranic school teacher. In 1789 he received the right to preach, then created a religious community of dissatisfied people. In his writings, Osman dan Fodio opposed the regime of the Sarki, the ruler of Gobir. In 1804, he declared himself the head of all Muslims (amir-el-muminin), began jihad against the rulers of Gobir, and in 1808 the rebels captured Alkalawa, the capital of Gobir. Osman dan Fodio announced the end of jihad. He proclaimed himself caliph of the new Sokoto empire. In 1812, the caliphate was divided into 2 parts - western and eastern. They were led by Osman's brother and son, Dan Fodio, respectively. The emirates that were part of the caliphate were ruled by the so-called royal emirs, local representatives of the Fulbi nobility, active participants in the jihad. Below, power was exercised by a whole pyramid of governors from the Fulban aristocracy, including judges - alkali. After the death of Osman dan Fodio in 1817, his son Muhammad Belo became the head of the caliphate. He retained the old Hausan emirates within their borders under the rule of the Fulban aristocracy. In the second half of the 19th century. The Sokoto Caliphate was a relatively stable large state. One of the centers of civilization in the region in modern times is the Yoruba city-state. The genesis of statehood began among the Yorubas in the 10th-12th centuries; Ile-Ife in the southwest of modern Nigeria is considered the cradle of their statehood and culture. In modern times, the city of Oyo became one of the notable Yoruba centers. It was founded around the 14th century, and from the 17th century. the period of its rise and expansion began, which lasted two centuries. As a result, the Oyo state became one of the largest military-political entities in the region. Since 1724, Oyo waged war with neighboring Dahomey, which it conquered in 1730. As a result, Oyo expanded significantly territorially and gained access to the Atlantic Ocean. However, at the beginning of the 19th century. Dahomey again fell away from Oyo, weakened by internecine wars and internal strife. Oyo finally fell in 1836 to the Sokoto Caliphate. The state of Dahomey was formed ca. 1625. Its ethnic basis was the Aja people of the Fon group. The rise of Dahomey occurred at the beginning of the 18th century. The further strengthening of the state was facilitated by the seizure of the slave trading ports of Ardra (Allada) and Vida on the Atlantic coast, which occurred in 1724-1725. This same fact, however, also contributed to the subjugation of Dahomey by its powerful neighbor Oyo, who needed access to the ocean coast. From 1730, Dahomey became a tributary of Oyo, and the son of its ruler was sent there as a hostage. In 1748, a treaty between Dahomey and Hoyo cemented the established relationship of dependency. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. A new rise of Dahomey begins, and it falls away from Oyo. Dahomey's eastern neighbor was Benin. The heyday of this state, the ethnic basis of which was the Edo people, occurred at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. Benin's new rise began in the 19th century, but was interrupted by the French conquest. The so-called bronzes of Benin are widely known - reliefs and heads made of bronze with extraordinary skill. Europe first became acquainted with Benin bronzes when, in 1897, during the looting of the palace, its treasures and even bas-reliefs from the external walls were taken away. Nowadays, any major art museum displays Benin bronzes. Art historians divide them into 3 periods: early - until the middle of the 16th century, middle - 16th-18th centuries. and late - the end of the 18th-19th centuries. With the development of the transatlantic slave trade in the delta. Several political entities have emerged in Niger, which are commonly called intermediary states. The most important of them were Ardra (Allada) and Vida, whose ethnic basis was the Aja people. The slave trade caused a transformation in the social organization of these cities. Traditionally, settlements were divided into quarters (polo), and those, in turn, into sub-quarters (wari). The settlements were governed by a meeting of the entire adult population, headed by an elder - the Amayonabo. He served as the high priest and commander of the army. With the development of the slave trade in the region in the 18th-19th centuries. The power of the Amayonabo strengthened, and the Wari transformed into a new type of social organization - the house. The house, unlike the Wari, included not only blood relatives, but also slaves. The main source of acquiring slaves was not capture, but purchase. Slave markets developed in the cities of the delta. The Ashanti people live in the north of modern Ghana. The basis of the Ashanti economy in modern times was the slave trade and gold trade. The basis of the ethnosocial organization of the Ashanti was Oman - the unification of family and tribal communities. Each community was headed by a council of elders, and military detachments were created on the basis of the communities. The army of each Oman was a union of such units. The precise military organization of the Ashanti was unparalleled in the region. The Omans were self-sufficient structures, but at the very end of the 17th century. The Ashanti created the so-called confederation - a union of Omans - to fight their neighbors. The first Asantehene (paramount leader), Osei Tutu, united all Ashanti under his rule in 1701 and ruled for 30 years. Subsequent rulers controlled more and more lands, and by the beginning of the twentieth century. Asantehene power extended over almost the entire territory of modern Ghana. Central and Eastern Sudan Kanem was located at the northern tip of the lake. Chad. Gradually, the center of this association of the ancestors of the modern Kanuri people shifted west to the region. Born. The basis of the economy that existed until the middle of the 16th century. the powers of Kanem-Bornu had trans-Saharan trade with the countries of the North. Africa, interested in obtaining purely African goods - ivory and slaves. In exchange, the Northern Nigerian territories received salt, horses, fabrics, weapons produced in Europe and the Maghreb countries, and various household goods. Significant difficulties were caused by the constant raids of the Saharan Tuareg tribes uniting for these purposes. In the western part of Vost. Sudan in the XVI-XIX centuries. There was a Sultanate of Darfur. Its ethnic basis was the For (Konjara) people. At the beginning of the 19th century. the population of the sultanate was approx. 3-4 million people, and the army reached 200 thousand people. The power of the Sultan was almost absolute. He had a main council of the highest nobility, a small secret council and several especially important dignitaries. The Sultanate was divided into provinces headed by the Sultan's governors, who had at their disposal police forces - detachments of armed slaves. Village residents had to pay a tax in kind to the Sultan up to 1/10 of their income - grain, leather, meat, etc. The same applied to the nomadic Arabs who lived on the territory of the Sultanate. Subsistence farming predominated in the country, but exchange and markets existed. The role of money was played by tin and copper rings, bars of salt, and slaves. The Sultanate also conducted foreign trade, exporting slaves, camels, ivory, ostrich feathers, and gum arabic. Firearms, metals, fabrics, paper, etc. were imported. The cities stood on caravan routes; the capital of the sultanate was the city of El Fasher. In 1870, the Darfur Sultanate recognized its dependence on Egypt. In the eastern part of Vost. Sudan in the XVI-XIX centuries. There was a Sultanate of Sennar. Its ethnic basis was the Fung people. Sennar was the unification under the rule of the Fungi of a whole chain of territories along the Nile from the third cataract in the north to Sennar proper (Blue Nile) in the south. The Sultanate relied on irrigated agriculture; its inhabitants skillfully built canals, dams and water mills. They grew wheat, millet, corn, melons, peppers and cotton. They raised livestock - meat, dairy and draft - and were skilled in making special cotton fabric. The principles of government were based on Sharia law. The Sultan, with him - a council of nobles from the highest dignitaries, a secret council of four, the chief judge - the qadi. The dependent provinces paid more taxes, and the Sennar provinces themselves paid a poll tax, a tax on livestock and land, and 1/10 of the harvest. Construction was widely developed in the sultanate - even in the villages there were fortified castles, while in the cities the rich neighborhoods consisted of adobe houses with a flat roof. The capital of the sultanate, the city of Sennar, numbered by the end of the 18th century. OK. 100 thousand inhabitants. Slave labor was widely used in the country - up to 8 thousand slaves worked on the Sultan's lands alone. The army was also strong, numbering several tens of thousands of soldiers. Sennar was a country of Muslim learning, Arabic served as the state language, and the percentage of literate people who studied in schools at mosques was high. Historical chronicles were kept from the founding of the sultanate until 1912. The Sultanate of Sennar was captured by Khedive Egypt in 1821. Ethiopia In the first centuries of the new era, the Kingdom of Aksum was formed on the territory of modern Ethiopia. In the 4th-6th centuries, during its heyday, the hegemony of Aksum extended to Nubia, where the ancient Meroitic kingdom was replaced by the states of Mukurra, Aloa and Nabatiya. During this period, Christianity began to spread there (in the 4th-6th centuries in Aksum, in the 5th-6th centuries in Nubia). In the first half of the 11th century. The Aksumite kingdom finally collapsed. By modern times, Ethiopia is already a fairly vast and militarily powerful state, the economic basis and political superstructure of which allow us to speak of the presence of developed feudalism in the country. In the middle of the 16th century. the country entered into a devastating 30-year war with the once vassal Muslim sultanates. Calling upon the aid of the Portuguese, armed with firearms, Ethiopia, with great difficulty, managed to defeat the Muslim army and defend its independence. Attempts by the Portuguese clergy to convert the country's population to Catholicism caused stubborn resistance from the Ethiopian clergy and flock, who did not want to deviate from the “pure faith of the fathers.” An important factor in the history of Ethiopia was the mass migration of Oromo tribes from the Red Sea coast. Over the course of two centuries, the Oromo managed to capture the fertile areas of the country, including in its central part. The country was in a state of self-isolation, and Europeans were forbidden to be within its borders on pain of death. The main content of internal political life was the constant internecine wars of the feudal lords for the expansion of their possessions. Centrifugal tendencies, which intensified by the middle of the 18th century, led to the “time of princes.” The power of the emperor was purely nominal, and the country turned into a conglomerate of virtually independent regions-states. With the weakening of the central government, there was a process of strengthening and development of individual parts of Ethiopia, primarily Shoa. Second half of the 19th century. - a time of continuous struggle for the creation and strengthening of a centralized Ethiopian state, for the preservation and strengthening of statehood. The “scramble for Africa” that began during this period between the Western European imperialist powers made the process of creating a strong and united Ethiopian state a task of utmost necessity. This task was solved during the reign of three emperors who went down in history as unifying emperors: Tewodros II, Yohannis IV and Menelik II. Acting using different methods depending on the specific historical situation, they managed to varying degrees to suppress the resistance of the separatist feudal lords and strengthen the central government. Through the efforts of Menelik II, the Ethiopia was created that existed until the revolution of 1974, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the country acquired modern geographical contours, administrative reform was carried out, and its own currency appeared. A cabinet of ministers was created, postal and telegraph services were organized, and the first schools according to the European model were opened. The end of the 19th century, known in African historiography as the period of the “Scramble for Africa,” was also alarming for Ethiopia. Italy was particularly active in the Horn of Africa. Having failed to impose its protectorate on Ethiopia through diplomacy, it decided to achieve its goal by force. The Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895-1896 resulted in three battles: Amba Alaga, Mekele and Adua. In the decisive battle on the night of March 1, 1896, the skillful leadership of Emperor Menelik, the courage of the Ethiopian soldiers, coupled with the tactical errors of the Italian command, led to the complete defeat of the colonialists. East Africa The territories lying between the African Great Lakes are called the East African Interlake Region. Here, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennia, the state of Kitara arose, which flourished in the 12th-14th centuries. The state was formed as a result of the interaction of agricultural and pastoral peoples. The agricultural culture was brought by the peoples of the Bantu group, and the pastoral culture was brought by the peoples of the Nilotic group, who came to the Inter-Lake region, as they believe, from the Ethiopian Highlands. By the beginning of the New Age, Kitara had to cede dominance in Inter-lake to its former small and inconspicuous southern province - Buganda, whose inhabitants were called “Baganda”. Buganda became one of the largest states in pre-colonial Tropical Africa. From Kitara, Buganda inherited the division into provinces, but here they were divided into smaller districts. Each province or district was headed by a governor, appointed directly by the supreme ruler - the kabaka. The Kabaka was considered a link with the spirits of his ancestors, going back to the legendary founder of Buganda. The Kabaka had absolute power. Clans, or clans, were a stable unit of social organization. The elders or their representatives occupied certain court positions, which were inherited, and at first made up the majority of the administrative class. However, in the 18th century. There is a gradual formation and strengthening of the service aristocracy, on which the taverns increasingly relied. Buganda reached its greatest prosperity under the Kabaka Mutese I (ruled 1856-1884), who created the rudiments of a standing army and a fleet of war canoes. Mezhozerye developed in relative isolation from the outside world. Traders, including slave traders from the Indian Ocean coast, arrived here only in the second half of the 18th century. They, representatives of the Swahili civilization, carried Islam with them. The first Christian Europeans were seen in Buganda only in 1862; these were the famous English travelers J. Speke and J. Grant. And in 1875, another famous traveler, G. M. Stanley, visited Buganda. On his initiative, European missionaries appeared in the country, followed by colonial expansion. In the VII-VIII centuries. on the ocean coast of the East. Africa, at the intersection of local cultures and Islamic culture brought by settlers from Arabia and Persia, the Swahili civilization arose. By the 13th century. coastal trading settlements grew into large city-states of Kilwa, Pate, Lamu, etc. Swahili civilization was a hotbed of trade and stone urban construction, and a rich spiritual culture flourished here, characterized by lyrical songs and epic poems in the local Swahili language. Every city-state kept chronicles. The Swahili city-states fell into decline after the Great Geographical Discoveries, as a result of which the Portuguese gradually seized the initiative in maritime trade - the basis of the economic prosperity of the Swahili civilization. The heir to this civilization was the Zanzibar Sultanate, which arose at the will of the Omani Sultan Seyid Said. By 1832 he had moved there, incorporating up to 300 large and small neighboring islands into his possessions. Clove plantations were established on Zanzibar and neighboring islands, which became the basis for the economic prosperity of the sultanate. Another important article was the slave trade - the sultanate became one of its largest centers, supplying slaves from the interior regions of the East. Ariki to the Middle East. After the death of Seyyid Said in 1856, his empire was divided between his heirs into two parts - the Oman and Zanzibar sultanates. The Zanzibar sultans pursued an active foreign policy; consulates of all leading European powers and the United States opened on the island. Zanzibar became the gateway to the East. Africa for European goods, and the slave market was closed in 1871 by Sultan Seyd Barghash under pressure from European powers. During the Scramble for Africa, the Zanzibar Sultanate eventually became dependent on Great Britain. Equatorial Africa Central Africa is one of the most difficult regions for human life. Here, dense tropical forests give way to savannas on plateaus, rising in ledges from the ocean into the interior of the continent. On the easternmost of these plateaus, Shaba, the Bantu, during their migrations, consolidated at the turn of the 1st-2nd millennium and began secondary migrations. By the beginning of the New Age, on the Atlantic coast south of the mouth of the river. The Congo were settled by the Bakongo, to the south of them, on the territory of modern Angola, by the Bambundu, in the interfluve of Kasai and Sankuru by the Bakuba, on the Shaba plateau by the Baluba, and in the northeast of Angola by the Balunda. In the 13th century south of the river mouth Congo, on the territory of modern Angola, arose the state of Congo, whose rulers - Manikongo - as a result of contacts with the Portuguese in the 15th century. accepted Catholicism. In its heyday (XVI - first half of the 17th century), Congo was divided into 6 provinces, there were many court positions with magnificent titles. In the second half of the 17th century. Internecine wars broke out in the country more than once. The final collapse of the state was facilitated by the so-called Antonian heresy, when a certain prophetess Beatrice appeared in the country, declaring that St. Anthony. She preached, in particular, hatred of the missionaries and the king who was in their hands. Beatrice was burned at the stake in 1706, and her supporters were defeated by royal troops only in 1709. After this, almost only the province surrounding the capital remained from Congo - Mbanza-Kongo (San Salvador). The state of Angola (Ndongo) arose on the southern periphery of the Congo ca. XV century It was populous and multi-ethnic. Its economy was based on shifting agriculture and cattle breeding, as well as metal processing (iron and copper), pottery and weaving. Ndongo had a strong army for those times, numbering up to 50 thousand soldiers. It was this circumstance that determined the persistence of the state’s resistance to Portuguese penetration (the so-called Angolan wars from 1575). The resistance to the Portuguese was led by Nzinga Mbandi Ngola (born ca. 1582), first a princess, and from 1624 ruler of Ndongo. She waged a long war with the Portuguese, concluding an alliance with Holland against them in 1641. In October 1647, Angolan-Dutch troops defeated the Portuguese. However, they took revenge in 1648. The death of Nzinga in 1663 contributed to the further decline of Ndongo, and from the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. Portugal conquers Angola. In the depths of Equatorial Africa, the states of the Bakuba, Baluba and Balunda peoples successively reached their peak. The first, called Bushongo, arose towards the end of the 16th century. , experienced its greatest prosperity in 1630-1680, is known, in particular, for the slave guard and the specialization of judges in various types of cases. The heyday of the Luba state was the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. At this time it extended from west to east for 600 km. The title of the supreme ruler of the state is mulokhwe. Under him there was a council of nobles and a nominal mother-co-ruler. The title of the supreme ruler of the Balunda state is muatha yamvo. The state reached its greatest prosperity in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. The expansion of the Balund to the east led to the emergence of ca. 1750 of the Kazembe state, organized according to a similar model. By the end of the 18th century. Kazembe became the dominant force in the south of what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. The state traded with the East African ocean coast and in 1798-1799 successfully repelled the attacks of a Portuguese military expedition. The states of the interior regions of Equatorial Africa had much in common. They developed for a long time in almost complete isolation. Each of them was headed by a supreme hereditary ruler, determined by the norms of maternal law. Under the ruler there was a council of nobles and numerous courtiers. Each state had several levels of administration. The residence of the ruler was in an urban-type settlement, but the location of the capital was constantly changing. The most stable in composition was the state of Bakuba, less stable - Baluba and even less stable - Balunda. In general, it can be noted that these were typical so-called early African states. South Africa South Africa is one of the regions of anthropogenesis. The remains of Australopithecus were discovered here. It is believed that it was in this region that the formation of the Khoisanids took place: the Saan (Bushmen) and the Khoi, or Nama (Hottentots). They are considered a subrace of the Negroid race. The Saan are hunters and gatherers. The Khoi (Nama) have long switched to cattle breeding, and by the beginning of the New Age they had formed conical clans. Archaeological excavations show that already at the end of the 15th century. Bantu began to appear in the region. Among the Bantu South. In Africa, property inequality had developed by modern times. There was a supreme elder, he had advisers, and below were the elders of the exogamous clans. For a long time, their associations were not tribal, but territorial. The clan was the basic unit of social organization; in parallel, conical clans emerged and chiefdoms were formed. In the area between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers, starting from the 9th century. the civilization of Zimbabwe developed. The ethnic background is the Karanga and Rozvi peoples, two branches of the Bantu-speaking Shona people. The civilization lasted approx. 10 centuries, is known for large stone buildings for public and cultural purposes. In the 15th century one of the rulers of the state took the title Mwene mutapa, and the state began to be called Monomotapa. Its decline, like that of the Swahili city-states, was caused by the Portuguese conquests in the East. Africa and the Portuguese monopolization of maritime trade in the Indian Ocean. On April 6, 1652, a fort was founded at the foot of Table Mountain, which became the beginning of the city of Kapstaad (now Cape Town). The Dutch East India Company established a stronghold there. Some of its employees became farmers, and farmers also moved directly from the Netherlands. The population of the Cape Colony also grew rapidly due to immigrants from German lands, and later - French Huguenots. The development of farming entailed a massive expulsion of Nama from the land. Wars accompanied the entire subsequent history of whites in southern Africa - this was the main way of territorial expansion of the Cape Colony. Since 1654, the East India Company imported slaves from Madagascar to the Cape Colony. The Boers became a new ethnic group that arose in the South. Africa as a result of the mixing of immigrants from the Netherlands, German lands, and France. Their language, Cape Dutch (now Afrikaans), gradually moved away from classical Dutch. The system of government of the Cape Colony remained almost unchanged until it passed into the hands of the British in 1806. The colony was headed by a governor. He presided over the Political Council, which played the role of the highest authority in the colony. The provinces were governed by Landdrosts, who headed the corresponding councils. There was no standing army, but farmers were required to perform military service in the event of hostilities. The possessions of the Dutch East India Company on the Cape were the first settlement, or resettlement, colony on the African continent; immigrants from Europe settled there forever and ran a productive economy. From 1806, British rule was finally established in the Cape Colony. In 1820-1821, more than 5 thousand families of settlers came to the Cape, as a result of which the white population of the colony doubled. The Boers became a minority even among the whites. In 1808, the British authorities’ ban on the slave trade in Cape came into force, and in 1834, the ban on owning slaves. All this undermined the foundations of the Boer economy and overflowed their patience. The Boers decided to leave the Cape Colony, which they had once founded. The most large-scale resettlement, carried out under the leadership of Pieter Retief, began in 1835, called the Great Trek. Over 5 thousand Boers crossed the river. Orange and left the Cape Colony. By 1845 the number of immigrants increased to 45 thousand. In 1839 in the South-East. In Africa, an independent Boer state arose - the Republic of Natal. However, 4 years later the British captured this territory too. Afrikaners were forced to migrate again to the interior of the South. Africa, where two new republics were formed: in 1852 - the Republic of South Africa (since 1856 it was also called Transvaal) with its capital in Pretoria, and in 1854 - the Orange Free State with its capital Bloemfontein. Since the size of many farms reached 50-100 thousand acres, the labor of native farm laborers and slaves was actively used. From the very beginning of the Cape Colony, there were anti-colonial protests and uprisings by the Khoi, and then by the Bantu-speaking peoples. The expansion of the Cape Colony to the east led to protracted wars with the Xhosa people. The so-called Kaffir wars continued with varying success from the 70s of the 18th century. until the 80s of the 19th century. The development of the South African Bantu was not uniform. The processes of ethnic consolidation manifested themselves to the greatest extent among the Zulu and Sotho. In the 1820s to 1840s, these processes, coinciding with European expansion and the Great Trek, were called "umfekane" - "grinding" in Zulu. During this complex phenomenon, the Zulu ethnic group emerged and the so-called Chaka Empire arose. At the same time, the Ndebele ethnicity was formed and the Mzilikazi empire arose, the Basotho ethnicity and the Mshweshwe empire arose. During the Great Trek, the Boers encountered the Zulus, who had a well-trained regular army. December 16, 1838 on the river. In Buffalo, a decisive battle took place between the army of Chaka's successor, Dingaan, and several hundred Boer settlers. The Boers, armed with firearms, destroyed more than 3 thousand Zulus. After Dingaan's defeat, his state disintegrated. The Zulus were first left with the territory north of the river. Tugela, but then these lands were captured by Europeans. The indigenous people of Namibia are the Saan (Bushmen). Later the Nama and Herero came there. The Ovambo, who migrated to the north of modern Namibia, have long raised large and small livestock; their main crops were grains. At the beginning of modern times, they developed social supra-clan structures—chiefdoms and early states. The Herero constantly moved in search of pastures and water, covering vast distances. Their economic unit was a community headed by an elder, but by the middle of the 19th century. The institution of omukhona - a hereditary supra-communal leader - and chiefdom appeared. These chiefdoms were completely independent. One of these omuhon was Magarero (Kamagerero, self-proclaimed supreme leader of the Herero), who emerged during the wars against the Nama (1863-1870). Individual Nama groups moved northward into the territory of modern Namibia. One of the manifestations of the Umfekane process was the invasion of Nama-speaking Orlam groups there. Their invasion disrupted the traditional way of life of the local population and the fragile socio-political balance in these areas. In the 1830s–1850s, the Orlam chief Jonker Afrikaaner subjugated many Nama and Herero groups and created a military-territorial entity whose authority extended over much of the central region of modern Namibia. After the death of Jonker Afrikaaner in 1861, his state disintegrated, but the Nama were kept in constant fear by the Hereros. Wars between the Herero and Nama continued intermittently throughout almost the entire 19th century. In 1890, in the face of a common danger for the Herero and Nama - German colonialism - peace was finally concluded between them. The giant island of Madagascar is inhabited mainly by representatives not of the Negroid, but of the Mongoloid race, speaking languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family. Archaeological finds indicate that the formation of the peoples inhabiting Madagascar took place during numerous migrations and assimilation of people from Indonesia, East. Africa and the countries of the Arab East. By the beginning of the 16th century. on the island there were approx. 18 ethnic groups that differed from each other in the form of economic activity. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Several early political formations arose on the territory of Madagascar, the most significant of them being Imerina, the ethnic basis of which was the Merina. Until the end of the 18th century. Imerina experienced a period of civil wars. Andrianampuinimerina became the unifier of the state. By this time, three main social strata had formed there: the nobility, ordinary community members, and patriarchal slaves. XIX century - a time of rapid development of Imerina as a single state. Radama I (ruled 1810-1828) created a regular army on the European model, numbering up to 10 thousand people, and managed to subjugate almost all the peoples living in the low-lying coastal regions of the island. Under him, missionaries opened schools, the first printing house appeared, and the foundation was laid for the introduction in 1876 of universal free education for children from 8 to 16 years old. The construction of the first canal in the coastal zone of the island began, and in 1825 a sugar factory was opened. The throne of Radama in 1828 was inherited by his wife Ranavaluna I, who continued to strengthen the state, under her the first legal code was published - the Code of 46 Articles. The last absolute monarch of Imerina, Radama II, opened the doors to the island to the French, concluding an agreement with them in 1862. From 1863 to 1896, the de facto ruler of Imerina was the prime minister and husband of three queens, Rainilayarivuni. In 1868 he declared Christianity in the form of Anglicanism (see Anglican Church) to be the state religion of Imerina. Under him, Madagascar flourished. The legislative system and state apparatus were strengthened. French expansion on the island resumed in 1882. As a result of two Franco-Malagasy wars (1883-1895), France abolished the local monarchy and in June 1896 declared the island its colony. Neither the heroic armed resistance of the inhabitants of Madagascar nor the firm position of their ruler helped. The colonial division of Africa The colonial division of Africa began in the last quarter of the 19th century. Its important stage was the Berlin Conference on the division of the river basin. Congo (November 1884 - March 23, 1885). Russia also took part in it; the conference was chaired by German Chancellor O. Bismarck. On February 26, 1885, the most important document of the conference was adopted - the Final Act, which declared freedom of trade in the Congo Basin, its estuaries and surrounding countries. The so-called principle of “effective occupation” was established, i.e. the colonial powers were obliged not only to declare their sovereignty over a particular territory, but also to create a management system there, introduce taxes, build roads, etc. The colonial division of Africa ended in mostly by the end of the 19th century. As a result, the entire Tropical and South. Africa, with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia, found itself in one form or another in colonial dependence on the metropolises - Great Britain, France, Portugal, Germany, Belgium, Italy. Tropical and South Africa in the 20th - early 21st centuries. In the history of Tropical and Southern. Africa in the twentieth century. There are several defining moments that are closely related to key events in world history. These were the results of the First World War of 1914-1918 and the emergence of the mandate system; the impact of the victory in World War II 1939-1945 of the Anti-Hitler coalition; the confrontation between the capitalist and socialist blocs and the acceleration of decolonization (year of Africa - 1960). An equally important milestone was the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s. The final formalization of colonial regimes in most African possessions occurred at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. XX century in Tropical and Southern. Africa is the time of formation and evolution of colonial societies. Colonial society is not an intermediate historical stage of “modernization” or transition from a pre-capitalist society to a capitalist one, but a special social phenomenon with its own laws of development, social groups, political institutions, etc. Colonial society as a type of sociality does not end with the achievement of political independence by African countries, but remains there with some modifications almost to this day. The colonies gradually turned into agricultural and raw materials appendages of the metropolises. S. x. and the emerging industries of the African colonies (mainly mining and manufacturing) were designed primarily for export. Large farms or plantations arose on lands appropriated by Europeans. When dealing with pre-capitalist societies, the colonial authorities themselves inevitably used pre-capitalist methods of their exploitation, such as forced labor, as well as the mass removal of Africans from the lands and their relocation to reserves. The latter was typical for settler colonies, in particular Kenya, North. and South Rhodesia (Zambia and Zimbabwe), South-West. Africa (Namibia). The collision of pre-capitalist societies with the realities of European capitalism led to the fact that the capitalist structure in Africa was not purely capitalist: there, as a rule, forced labor or the labor of otkhodniks was used. Otkhodnik is one of the central social figures of colonial society. This is an individual who spends part of his life earning money (seasonally, sporadically, or several years at a time), but is not excluded from his original economy, where his family continues to live and work. The colonial peasant in reality is an otkhodnik, a farm laborer with an allotment, a community worker leading an almost subsistence economy, etc. An important element of the social structure of colonial societies are the so-called native leaders and rulers. Having become part of the colonial system, they contributed to the integration of ordinary community members into colonial society, performing local functions of “native” administrations - collecting taxes, organizing public works, maintaining law and order. Even at the dawn of the history of colonialism in Africa, many of its peoples tried to defend their independence with arms in hand. Herero and Nama uprisings in the South-West. Africa (1904-1907), Maji-Maji uprising of 1905-1907 in the German East. Africa and other actions inevitably faced defeat due to inequality of power. The “development” of the African continent by European powers, the formation and evolution of colonial societies gave rise to new forms of protest among Africans. At the first stage, until the end of the First World War, the struggle of Africans developed not so much against colonialism as such, but for the regulation of relations between the colony and the metropolis. Later, anti-colonial protest took on new forms and was implemented in other areas of life. For many years in many parts of Africa, one of the most important forms of anti-colonialism were Afro-Christian and Islamic movements and sects. Passive protest resulted in non-payment of taxes, boycott of European goods, flight to neighboring colonies, etc. Decolonization of the African continent was not a straightforward process with a predetermined goal. During the interwar 20th anniversary, the public consciousness of Africans began to develop ideas about the possibility of alternative paths of development - not only under the auspices of the European metropolises, but also within the framework of self-government, the principles of which were widely discussed by the numerous socio-political organizations that emerged at that time (African National Congress of South Africa , created in 1912, National Congress of British West Africa, created in 1920, and other movements and parties). The ideas of Pan-Africanism, which originated in the New World and fought against discrimination against all peoples of African origin, played a great role in their formation. Socialist and communist ideas also had a certain significance, especially in the South. Africa, where the Communist Party arose back in 1921 and was accepted into the Communist International. Political parties of the modern type, which put forward demands for the independence of their countries, arose in Africa mainly after the Second World War. It was these organizations that led the movement for political independence in the third stage of decolonization, which began with the end of World War II. Allies in this struggle, which took both peaceful and armed forms, for the African peoples were, first of all, the countries of the Eastern Bloc and various international, regional and national non-governmental organizations. The United Nations and its specialized bodies had a great influence on the formulation of the general principles of the decolonization process, constantly enriching the international legal foundations of this process. The Fifth Pan-African Congress (1945) declared a course towards achieving independence. Mass parties emerged, old ones established themselves, and new political leaders emerged. The first to gain independence in 1957 was the British colony of the Gold Coast, which took the historical name Ghana. In 1960, 17 African colonies, mostly former possessions of France, gained political independence, which is why it went down in history as the year of Africa. Then, in the 60s, the British colonies in Tropical Africa became independent, after the Portuguese revolution, in 1975, the former Portuguese possessions, in 1980, the British South. Rhodesia, called Zimbabwe. The declaration of independence of the last colonies of Black Africa occurred in the 1990s: in 1990, occupied South Africa Namibia gained independence, and in 1994, the special colonial regime was ended in South Africa, where, after the first general elections, the government of the black majority came to power. The delay in the process of decolonization of the continent in its southern regions can be explained primarily by the peculiarities of the development of so-called internal colonialism in countries with a complex ethnic composition of the population. In addition, it should be borne in mind that decolonization has always been seen as an important aspect of the confrontation in the ideological struggle of the Eastern and Western blocs, which allowed or deliberately provoked the emergence of “hot spots” within the Cold War. The decolonization of Africa did not lead to the resolution of all its previous problems. Moreover, during decolonization, new ones emerged or emerged. In particular, the most serious problem that many African countries faced either on the eve of independence or shortly after its proclamation was separatism. In Uganda, on the eve of independence, Buganda attempted secession. In Zaire (formerly the Belgian Congo, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), immediately after gaining independence, two provinces were separated - Katanga and Kasai. In Nigeria in 1967-1970 there was a civil war with the breakaway “Republic of Biafra”. To this day, a tense balancing act continues between the need to respect the right of peoples to self-determination, as enshrined in many international documents, including the fundamental documents of the UN, and the principle of preserving territorial integrity, protected by every capable modern state. Another problem is the search by African countries for their place in the world, including the problem of choosing a model of socio-economic and political development, alliance with leading world and regional blocs. Another important problem faced by African countries was the need for spiritual decolonization, which has been discussed since the mid-nineteenth century. spoke prominent representatives of the African intellectual elite, considering such liberation a priority and much more important than obtaining the status of an independent state. In general, economic, political and ethnic problems in the Tropical and Southern. Africa at the end of the twentieth century. worsened. The standard of living of the average African continued to decline. The militarization of many countries has increased. A number of new ones have emerged and some old centers of instability and conflict have revived - in Somalia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Congo and other countries.

Russian Historical Encyclopedia

The total area of Tropical Africa is more than 20 million km 2, the population is 600 million people. It is also called Black Africa, since the population of the subregion overwhelmingly belongs to the equatorial (Negroid) race. But in terms of ethnic composition, individual parts of Tropical Africa differ quite greatly. It is most complex in Western and Eastern Africa, where at the junction of different races and linguistic families the greatest “strip” of ethnic and political borders arose. The people of Central and Southern Africa speak numerous (with up to 600 dialects) but closely related languages of the Bantu family (the word means “people”). The Swahili language is especially widespread. And the population of Madagascar speaks languages of the Austronesian family. .

There is also much in common in the economy and settlement of the population of the countries of Tropical Africa. Tropical Africa is the most backward part of the developing world, within its borders there are 29 least developed countries. Nowadays this is the only large region a world where agriculture remains the main sphere of material production.

About half of rural residents live subsistence Agriculture, the rest are low-commercial. Hoe tillage predominates with the almost complete absence of a plow; It is no coincidence that the hoe, as a symbol of agricultural labor, is included in the image of the state emblems of a number of African countries. All main agricultural work is performed by women and children. They cultivate root and tuber crops (cassava or cassava, yams, sweet potatoes), from which they make flour, cereals, cereals, flatbreads, as well as soy, sorgo, rice, corn, bananas, and vegetables. Livestock farming is much less developed, including due to the tsetse fly, and if it plays a significant role (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia), it is carried out extremely extensively. In the equatorial forests there are tribes and even nationalities that still live by hunting, fishing and gathering. In the savannah and tropical rainforest zones, the basis of consumer agriculture is the fallow-type slash-and-burn system.

Areas of commercial crop production with a predominance of perennial plantings - cocoa, coffee, peanuts, hevea, oil palm, tea, sisal, and spices - stand out sharply against the general background. Some of these crops are grown on plantations, and some on peasant farms. They primarily determine the monocultural specialization of a number of countries.

According to their main occupation, the majority of the population of Tropical Africa lives in rural areas. The savannahs are dominated by large villages near rivers, while the tropical forests are dominated by small villages.

The life of the villagers is closely connected with the subsistence farming they lead. Among them, local traditional beliefs are widespread: cult of ancestors, fetishism, belief in nature spirits, magic, witchcraft, various talismans. Africans believe. that the spirits of the dead remain on earth, that the spirits of ancestors strictly monitor the actions of the living and can harm them if any traditional commandment is violated. Christianity and Islam, introduced from Europe and Asia, also became quite widespread in Tropical Africa. .

Tropical Africa is the least industrialized region of the world (not counting Oceania). There is only one fairly large mining region, the Copper Belt, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. This industry also forms several smaller areas that you already know.

Tropical Africa is the least urbanized region in the world(see Figure 18). Only eight of its countries have millionaire cities, which usually tower over numerous provincial towns like lonely giants. Examples of this kind are Dakar in Senegal, Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nairobi in Kenya, Luanda in Angola.

Tropical Africa also lags behind in the development of its transport network. Its pattern is determined by “penetration lines” isolated from each other, leading from the ports to the hinterland. In many countries there are no railways at all. It is customary to carry small loads on the head, and over a distance of up to 30-40 km.

Finally, in T Environmental quality is rapidly deteriorating in tropical Africa. Desertification, deforestation, and depletion of flora and fauna have assumed the most alarming proportions here.

Example. The main area of drought and desertification is the Sahel zone, which stretches along the southern borders of the Sahara from Mauritania to Ethiopia across ten countries. In 1968-1974. Not a single rain fell here, and the Sahel turned into a scorched earth zone. In the first half and mid-80s. catastrophic droughts recurred. They claimed millions of human lives. The number of livestock has decreased significantly.

What happened in this area came to be called the “Sahel tragedy.” But it is not only nature that is to blame. The onset of the Sahara is facilitated by overgrazing of livestock and destruction of forests, primarily for firewood. .

In some countries of Tropical Africa, measures are being taken to protect flora and fauna and national parks are being created. This primarily applies to Kenya, where international tourism income is second only to coffee exports. . (Creative task 8.)

It includes a territory (with an area of about 10 million sq. km and a population of 170 million people) adjacent to the Mediterranean, inhabited mainly by Arabs professing Islam. Countries located in this territory (, Western Sahara,), due to their geographical location (coastal, neighboring countries and) and higher (compared to the states of Tropical Africa) level of economic and industrial development, are distinguished by greater involvement in ( export of oil, gas, phosphorites, etc.).

The economic life of North Africa is concentrated in the coastal zone. Almost the entire population of the region is concentrated in this same zone.

Tropical Africa includes the territory located south of, within which, in turn, are distinguished, and. The overwhelming majority of those located on their territory belong to the equatorial (Negroid) race. It is distinguished by great diversity (there are more than 200 peoples), multinational states predominate.

The main activity of the population is agriculture (with the exception of the countries of South Africa, in which industry and the service sector play a decisive role). Tropical Africa is the most economically backward, least industrialized and least urbanized part of the developing world. Of the 49 countries within its borders, 32 belong to the group of “least developed countries in the world.” The average per capita GNP in the countries of Eastern, Western and Central Africa is several times (5-7 or more times) less than in the countries of Northern and Southern Africa.

Among the countries located south of the Sahara, it occupies a special place.

Firstly, by its geographical location it no longer belongs to Tropical Africa.

Secondly, in terms of socio-economic development it does not belong to developing countries. This is a country of “settler capitalism”. It accounts for: 5.5% of the territory, 7%, but 2/3 of its GDP, more than 50% of manufacturing products and the automobile fleet.

The largest industrial region in Africa, the Witwatersrand, was formed with its center in, which plays the role of the “economic capital” of the country.

In the MGRT, the face of South Africa is represented by the mining industry (gold, platinum, diamonds, uranium, iron, manganese ores, coal), some manufacturing industries (, as well as the production of certain types of agricultural products (cereals, subtropical crops, fine-fleece sheep, cattle livestock).

South Africa has the densest transport network on the continent and major seaports.

However, the country's economy is still feeling the effects of apartheid policies. There are great differences between “whites” on the one hand and “blacks” and “coloreds” on the other. Therefore, South Africa is often called a dual economy country. It has the features of economically developed and developing countries.