Science is a body of knowledge about facts and laws brought into a system. Universal Moral Principles
The word "science" in Russian has a very broad meaning. Science is physics, literary criticism, the doctrine of welding (it’s not for nothing that there are welding institutes), science is also the art of weaving bast shoes (the phrase “he comprehended the science of weaving” is quite acceptable in Russian, but there is no institute for the latter science only because it is not currently relevant).
Ancient Greece can be considered the European birthplace of science; it was there in the 5th century. BC. science arose as an evidential type of knowledge, different from mythological thinking. What made ancient Greek thinkers “scientists” in the modern sense of the word was their interest in the very process of thinking, its logic and content.
Ancient science has given us an unsurpassed example of a complete system of theoretical knowledge. – Euclidian geometry. In addition to mathematical theory, ancient science created cosmological models(Aristarchus of Samos), formulated valuable ideas for a number of future sciences - physics, biology, etc.
But science has become a full-fledged socio-spiritual education since the 17th century, when, through the efforts of G. Galileo and, especially, I. Newton, the first natural science theory was created and the first scientific associations of scientists (scientific communities) arose.
Over the 2.5 thousand years of its existence, science has turned into a complex formation with its own structure. Now it covers a huge area of knowledge with 15 thousand disciplines. The number of scientists by profession in the world by the end of the 20th century reached over 5 million people.
In general terms:
Science is a system of consciousness and activity of people aimed at achieving objectively true knowledge and systematizing information available to people and society.
Science is a form of human knowledge, tested by practice, which is a common product of the development of society and an integral part of the spiritual culture of society; this is a system of concepts about phenomena and laws of reality;
In a private sense:
The science– this is a special area of purposeful human activity both to obtain new knowledge (the main goal) and to develop new methods for obtaining it; which includes scientists with their knowledge and abilities, scientific institutions and has as its task the study (based on certain methods of knowledge) of the objective laws of nature, society and thinking to foresee and transform reality in the interests of society. [Burgin M.S. Introduction to modern exact science methodology. Structures of knowledge systems. M.: 1994].
On the other hand, science is also a story about what exists in this world and, in principle, can be, but it does not say what “should be” in the world in social terms - leaving it up to the “majority” to choose. humanity.
Scientific activity includes the following elements: subject (scientists), object (all states of being of nature and man), goal (goals) - as a complex system of expected results of scientific activity, means (methods of thinking, scientific instruments, laboratories), final product ( indicator of scientific activity carried out - scientific knowledge), social conditions (organization of scientific activity in society), activity of the subject - without the proactive actions of scientists and scientific communities, scientific creativity cannot be realized.
Today, the goals of science are diverse - this is the description, explanation, prediction, interpretation of those processes and phenomena that have become its objects (subjects), as well as the systematization of knowledge and the implementation of the results obtained in management, production and other spheres of public life, in improving its quality.
But the main defining goal of scientific activity is to obtain knowledge about reality, i.e. scientific knowledge.
Science in its modern understanding is a fundamentally new factor in the history of mankind, which arose in the depths of the new European civilization in the 16th – 17th centuries. It was in the 17th century. something happened that gave grounds to talk about a scientific revolution - a radical change in the main components of the substantive structure of science, the promotion of new principles of knowledge, categories and methods.
The social stimulus for the development of science was growing capitalist production, which required new natural resources and machines. Science was needed as a productive force for society. If ancient Greek science was a speculative research (translated from Greek “theory” means speculation), little connected with practical problems, then only in the 17th century. Science began to be seen as a way to ensure man's dominance over nature. René Descartes wrote: “It is possible, instead of speculative philosophy, which only conceptually dissects a pre-given truth in hindsight, to find one that directly approaches being and attacks it, so that we obtain knowledge about force... Then... realize and apply this knowledge for all the purposes for which they are suitable, and thus this knowledge (these new modes of representation) will make us masters and possessors of nature.”(Descartes R. Discourses on the method. Selected works. M., 1950, p. 305).
Science, with its special rationality, should be considered a phenomenon of Western culture of the 17th century: science is a special rational way of understanding the world, based on empirical testing or mathematical proof.
The science Modern science- the sphere of research activity aimed at producing new knowledge about nature, society and thinking, including all the conditions and aspects of this production: scientists with their knowledge and abilities, qualifications and experience, with the division and cooperation of scientific work; scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment; research methods; conceptual and categorical apparatus, a system of scientific information, as well as the entire amount of available knowledge that acts as a prerequisite, or means, or result of scientific research. These results can act as Science is not limited to natural sciences or exact sciences. It is considered as an integral system of knowledge, including a historically moving relationship of parts, natural history and social science, philosophy and natural science, method and theory, theoretical and applied research. The science In conditions of scientific and technological revolution Main appointment scientific activity The science- This: 1. One of the forms of social consciousness. 2. 3. 4. Functions of science Scientific knowledge:
Methods for constructing scientific novelty.
Scientific novelty is a criterion of scientific research that determines the degree of transformation, addition, and specification of scientific data. Construction of scientific novelty- the fundamental moment of any scientific search, determining the entire process of scientific creativity of a scientist. Elements novelties in scientific research in sociology:
New or improved criteria for assessing the social processes under study, based on indicators obtained empirically;
For the first time, practically social problems were posed and solved;
New foreign or domestic concepts, used for the first time to solve theoretical problems;
Terms and concepts introduced into scientific circulation in Russian sociology for the first time;
Academicism as a style of scientific communication.
Academicism- communication style, which includes:
A special scientific language, devoid of emotionality and frivolous phrases;
Restrained and constructive nature of criticism and discussion;
Respect for other members of the scientific community.
Academicism assumes the ability to:
To doubt established truths;
Defend your own views;
Fight scientific stereotypes.
Tactics of scientific controversy.
Scientific discussion is understood as a special method of cognition, the essence of which is the discussion and development of opposing ideas in order to reveal the truth or achieve general agreement. A scientific dispute arises when there is a significant difference in the views of the interlocutors, while each of them seeks to defend their own opinion. Logical aspect of the dispute- proof or refutation. Mechanism of dispute- one person puts forward a certain thesis and tries to substantiate its truth, another attacks this thesis and tries to refute its truth. Scientific controversy- rational. It occurs if: 1) there is a subject of dispute; 2) there is a real opposition of the parties’ points of view regarding the subject of the dispute; 3) the general basis of the dispute is presented (principles, provisions that are recognized and shared by both parties); 4) there is some knowledge about the subject of the dispute; 5) respect for the interlocutor is expected. Dispute rules for “speakers”:- a friendly attitude towards the interlocutor; - politeness towards the listener; - modesty in self-esteem, unobtrusiveness; - following the logic of text development; - brevity of statements; - skillful use of auxiliary means. Dispute rules for “listeners”:- the ability to listen; - a patient and friendly attitude towards the speaker; - giving the speaker the opportunity to express himself; - emphasizing interest in the speaker.
Science as a process of obtaining new knowledge.
The science is a human activity to develop, systematize and test knowledge. Knowledge allows us to explain and understand the processes being studied, make predictions for the future and make appropriate scientific recommendations. Science is the basis for the formation of an industrial society. Science has moved away from everyday knowledge but cannot exist without it. Science finds in everyday knowledge material for further processing, without which it cannot do. Modern science The science- a necessary consequence of the social division of labor, it arises after the separation of mental labor from physical labor. In conditions of scientific and technological revolution A new radical restructuring of science as a system is taking place. In order for science to meet the needs of modern production, it turns into a social institution, so that scientific knowledge becomes the property of a large army of specialists, organizers, engineers and workers. If previously science developed as a separate part of the social whole, now it begins to permeate all spheres of life. Main appointment scientific activity- gaining knowledge about reality. Humanity has been accumulating them for a long time. However, most of modern knowledge has been gained in just the last two centuries. This unevenness is due to the fact that it was during this period that science discovered its many possibilities. The science- This: 1. One of the forms of social consciousness. 2. Designation for individual branches of knowledge. 3. A social institution that: - integrates and coordinates the cognitive activities of many people; - organizes social relations in the scientific sphere of public life. 4. A special type of human cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about the world. Functions of science in society: - description, - explanation, - prediction of processes and phenomena of the surrounding world, based on the laws it discovers. Scientific knowledge:- a substantive, objective and systematized way of viewing the world; - goes beyond “direct practice and experience.” The truth of knowledge at the level of scientific knowledge is verified using special logical procedures for obtaining and justifying knowledge, methods of proving and refuting it.
Science is a form of social consciousness, a special type of cognitive activity. It is aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about the world.
In scientific activity, any objects can be transformed - fragments of nature, social subsystems and society as a whole, states of human consciousness, therefore all of them can become subjects of scientific research. Science studies them as objects that function and develop according to their own natural laws. It can study a person as a subject of activity, but also as a special object.
Science as knowledge
Science as knowledge is an expanded association of cognitive units aimed at revealing objective laws.
From the point of view of the knowledge that forms science, it is not holistic. This manifests itself in two ways:
First, it includes substantively incompatible alternative and intensely competing theories. This incompatibility can be overcome by synthesizing alternative theories.
Secondly, science is a unique combination of scientific and non-scientific knowledge: it includes its own history containing alternative knowledge.
The foundations of scientificity, allowing to distinguish between science and non-scientific knowledge: adequacy, absence of flaws, gaps, inconsistencies. The criteria for the scientific nature of knowledge depend on various spheres and stages of knowledge.
According to V.V. Ilyin, science as knowledge consists of three layers:
1. “cutting edge science”,
2. “hard core of science”,
3. “history of science.”
Cutting-edge science, along with true ones, includes untrue results obtained by scientific means. This layer of science is characterized by information content, non-triviality, and heuristics, but at the same time, the requirements for accuracy, rigor, and validity are weakened. This is necessary so that science can vary alternatives, play out different possibilities, expand its horizons, and produce new knowledge. Therefore, the science of the “leading edge” is woven from the search for truth - premonitions, wanderings, individual impulses towards clarity, and has minimally reliable knowledge.
The second layer – the hard core of science – is formed by true knowledge filtered from science. This is the basis, the basis of science, a reliable layer of knowledge formed in the process of cognition. The solid core of science is distinguished by clarity, rigor, reliability, validity, and evidence. Its task is to act as a factor of certainty, to play the role of prerequisite, basic knowledge, orienting and correcting cognitive acts. It consists of evidence and justification and represents the most established, objective part of science.
The history of science (the third layer) is created by an array of obsolete, outdated knowledge that has been pushed outside the boundaries of science. It is, first of all, a fragment of science, and only then - history. It stores an invaluable reserve of ideas that may be in demand in the future.
History of science
Stimulates scientific research,
Contains a detailed panorama of the dynamics of knowledge,
Contributes to the comprehension of intrascientific perspectives and opportunities,
Accumulates information about ways to achieve knowledge, forms, methods of analyzing an object,
Performs protective functions - warns, prevents people from turning to dead-end trains of thought and ideas.
Science as a cognitive activity
Science can also be represented as a certain human activity, isolated in the process of division of labor and aimed at obtaining knowledge.
It has two sides: sociological and cognitive.
The first one records role functions, standard responsibilities, powers of subjects within science as an academic system and a social institution.
The second displays creative procedures(empirical and theoretical level), allowing to create, expand and deepen knowledge.
The basis of scientific activity is the collection of scientific facts, their constant updating and systematization, critical analysis. On this basis, a synthesis of new scientific knowledge is carried out, which not only describes observed natural or social phenomena, but also makes it possible to build cause-and-effect relationships and predict the future.
Cognitive activity involves people engaged in scientific research, writing articles or monographs, united in institutions or organizations such as laboratories, institutes, academies, scientific journals.
Activities for the production of knowledge are impossible without the use of experimental means - instruments and installations, with the help of which the phenomena being studied are recorded and reproduced.
Subjects of research - fragments and aspects of the objective world to which scientific knowledge is directed - are identified and cognized through methods.
Knowledge systems are recorded in the form of texts and fill the shelves of libraries. Conferences, discussions, dissertation defenses, scientific expeditions - all these are concrete manifestations of cognitive scientific activity.
Science as an activity cannot be considered in isolation from its other aspect – scientific tradition. The real conditions for the creativity of scientists that guarantee the development of science are the use of the experience of the past and the further growth of an infinite number of germs of all kinds of ideas, sometimes hidden in the distant past. Scientific activity is possible thanks to the many traditions within which it is carried out.
Components of scientific activity:
· division and cooperation of scientific work
· scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment
· research methods
scientific information system
· the entire amount of previously accumulated scientific knowledge.
Science as a social institution
Science is not only an activity, but also a social institution. Institute (from lat. institutum- establishment, arrangement, custom) presupposes a complex of norms, principles, rules, and behavioral models operating in society that regulate human activity. The concept of “social institution” reflects degree of fixation of a particular type of human activity- So, there are political, social, religious institutions, as well as institutions of family, school, marriage, etc.
Functions of science as a social institution: bear responsibility for the production, examination and implementation of scientific and technical knowledge, distribution of rewards, recognition of the results of scientific activity (translation of the personal achievements of a scientist into the collective property).
As a social institution, science includes the following components:
· a body of knowledge (objective, or socialized, and subjective, or personal) and its carriers (a professional stratum with integral interests);
· cognitive rules;
· moral standards, moral code;
· presence of specific cognitive goals and objectives;
· performing certain functions;
· the presence of specific means of knowledge and institutions;
· development of forms of control, examination and evaluation of scientific achievements;
· finance;
· tools;
· obtaining and improving qualifications;
· communication with various levels of management and self-government;
· existence of certain sanctions.
In addition, the components of science, considered as a social institution, are various authorities, live communication, authority and informal leadership, power organization and interpersonal contact, corporations and communities.
Science as a social institution depends on the needs of technological development, socio-political structures and the internal values of the scientific community. In this regard, restrictions on research activities and freedom of scientific inquiry are possible. The institutionality of science provides support for those projects and activities that contribute to the strengthening of a particular value system.
One of the unwritten rules of the scientific community is the prohibition of appealing to the authorities or asking for the use of mechanisms of coercion and subordination in resolving scientific problems. The requirement of scientific competence becomes the leading one for the scientist. Arbitrators and experts when assessing the results of scientific research can only be professionals or groups of professionals.
Science as a special sphere of culture
Modern philosophy of science considers scientific knowledge as a sociocultural phenomenon. This means that science depends on the diverse forces and influences operating in society, and itself largely determines social life. Science arose as a sociocultural phenomenon, responding to a certain need of humanity to produce and obtain true, adequate knowledge about the world. It exists, having a noticeable impact on the development of all spheres of public life. On the other hand, science claims to be the only stable and “genuine” foundation of culture.
As a sociocultural phenomenon, science always relies on the cultural traditions established in society, on accepted values and norms. Each society has a science corresponding to the level of its civilizational development. Cognitive activity is woven into the existence of culture. TO cultural-technological function science is associated with the inclusion of a person - the subject of cognitive activity - in the cognitive process.
Science cannot develop without mastering knowledge that has become public domain and stored in social memory. The cultural essence of science entails its ethical and value content. New opportunities are opening up tosa science - the problem of intellectual and social responsibility, moral and ethical choice, personal aspects of decision making, problems of the moral climate in the scientific community and team.
Science acts as a factor in the social regulation of social processes. It affects the needs of society, becomes a necessary condition for rational management, any innovation requires a reasoned scientific justification. The manifestation of sociocultural regulation of science is carried out through the system of education, training and involvement of members of society in research activities and the ethos of science that has developed in a given society. The ethos of science (according to R. Merton) is a set of moral imperatives accepted in the scientific community and determining the behavior of a scientist.
Scientific research activity is recognized as a necessary and sustainable socio-cultural tradition, without which the normal existence and development of society is impossible; science is one of the priority areas of activity of any civilized state.
Being a sociocultural phenomenon, science includes numerous relationships, including economic, socio-psychological, ideological, social and organizational. Responding to the economic needs of society, it realizes itself as a direct productive force and acts as the most important factor in the economic and cultural development of people.
Responding to the political needs of society, science appears as a political instrument. Official science is forced to support the fundamental ideological guidelines of society and provide intellectual arguments that help the existing government maintain its privileged position.
Constant pressure from society is felt not only because science today is forced to fulfill social orders. A scientist always bears moral responsibility for the consequences of using technological installations. In relation to the exact sciences, such a characteristic as secrecy is of great importance. This is due to the need to fulfill special orders, and in particular, in the military industry.
Science is a “communitarian (collective) enterprise”: not a single scientist can help but rely on the achievements of his colleagues, on the cumulative memory of humanity. Every scientific result is the fruit of collective efforts.
The science– 1) one of the forms of human knowledge, a system of reliable knowledge about the patterns of development of nature, society, and man; 2) the sphere of creative activity aimed at obtaining, justifying, systematizing, and evaluating new knowledge about nature, society, and man.
As a social institution, science includes the following components: the body of knowledge and its carriers; the presence of specific cognitive goals and objectives; performing certain functions; the presence of specific means of knowledge and institutions; development of forms of control, examination and evaluation of scientific achievements; the existence of certain sanctions.
Science as a social institution includes:
– scientists with their knowledge, abilities and experience – representatives of science who carry out meaningful activities to form a scientific picture of the world, whose scientific activities and qualifications in one form or another have received recognition from the scientific community;
– scientific institutions (RAS, scientific centers, state institutes, etc.) and organizations (UNESCO, IUPAC, International Astronomical Union, etc.;
– special equipment (laboratory installations, space stations, etc.);
– methods of scientific research work (observation, experiment, etc.);
– a special language (signs, symbols, formulas, equations, etc.).
The purpose of science– obtaining scientific knowledge that underlies the scientific picture of the world.
Characteristic features of science: validity of statements, reliability of the results obtained, systematic research.
Principles of Science (according to R. Merton)
– universalism – impersonal character, objective nature of scientific knowledge; international and democratic nature of science.
– collectivism – the universal nature of scientific work, presupposing the publicity of scientific results, their public domain;
– selflessness, conditioned by the general goal of science – the comprehension of truth;
– organized skepticism – a critical attitude towards oneself and the work of one’s colleagues; in science nothing is taken for granted.
Properties of science, as a professionally organized cognitive activity: objective subjectivity; general significance; validity; certainty; accuracy; verifiability; reproducibility of the subject of knowledge; objective truth; utility.
Functions of science
1) cultural and ideological – forms a worldview; scientific ideas are part of general education and culture;
2) cognitive-explanatory - science has become a factor in the production process, the development of technology increasingly depends on the success of scientific research;
3) predictive - science data are used to develop plans and programs for social and economic development, to manage cultural processes;
4) practically effective;
5) social memory, etc.
Classification of modern sciences is produced according to the type of modern sciences, distinguished by object, subject, method, degree of generality and fundamentality of knowledge, and scope of application, etc.
1. Sciences are divided into: a) natural(astronomy, astrophysics, cosmochemistry, geology, geophysics, geochemistry, cycle of anthropological sciences, etc.); b) public(social) (sociology, political science, legal, management, etc.); V) Humanities(psychology, logic, literary criticism, art criticism, history, language sciences, etc.); G) technical– (sciences that study the effects of the laws of physics and chemistry in technical devices, and other sciences).
2. Based on their direct relation to practical activities, science is usually divided into fundamental And applied. The task fundamental sciences is the knowledge of the laws governing the behavior and interaction of the basic structures of nature and culture. Target applied sciences– application of the results of fundamental sciences to solve not only cognitive, but also social and practical problems. Fundamental sciences are ahead of applied sciences in their development, creating a theoretical foundation for them.
Directions of scientific research
Basic scientific research– this is a deep and comprehensive study of a subject in order to obtain new fundamental knowledge, as well as to clarify the patterns of the phenomena being investigated, the results of which are not intended for direct industrial use.
Applied scientific research– this is research that uses the achievements of fundamental science to solve practical problems. The result of the research is the creation and improvement of new technologies.
Trends in the development of scientific knowledge
Differentiation, i.e. division, fragmentation into smaller and smaller sections and subsections (for example, in physics a whole family of sciences was formed: mechanics, optics, electrodynamics, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, etc.).
Integration scientific knowledge has become a leading pattern of its development and can manifest itself: in the organization of research “at the intersection” of related scientific disciplines; in the development of “transdisciplinary” scientific methods that are important for many sciences (spectral analysis, chromatography, computer experiment); in the development of theories that perform general methodological functions in natural science (general systems theory, cybernetics, synergetics); in changing the nature of the problems solved by modern science - they mostly become complex, requiring the participation of several disciplines at once (environmental problems, the problem of the origin of life, etc.).
Differentiation and integration in the development of science are complementary trends.
Modern science– a complex network of interacting groups, organizations and institutions that are connected not only with each other, but also with other powerful subsystems of society and the state: economy, education, politics, culture, etc.
TO main characteristics modern science can be attributed to: a sharply increased number of scientists; growth of scientific information; changing the world of science (science includes about 15 thousand disciplines that are increasingly interacting with each other); transformation of scientific activity into a special profession.
The science: 1) helps a person not only explain the knowledge he knows about the world, but also build it into an integral system, consider the phenomena of the surrounding world in their unity and diversity, and develop his own worldview; 2) carries out knowledge and explanation of the structure of the world and the laws of its development; 3) predicts the consequences of changes in the surrounding world, reveals possible dangerous trends in the development of society, and formulates recommendations for overcoming them; 4) performs the direct function of the productive force of society.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR)– a leap in the development of the productive forces of society (machines, machines, energy sources, etc.) – represents a stage in the development of scientific and technological progress (STP), which is associated with the transformation of science into the direct productive force of society (science becomes a constant source of new ideas that determine the path of development of society). Modern scientific and technological revolution is a set of radical, qualitative and interrelated transformations in the means of production (tools and means of labor), technology, organization and management of production based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force. Scientific management of productive forces is a powerful source of social development. Technological revolution requires constant retraining, therefore scientific investments in people are the most promising.
Social consequences of the scientific and technological revolution
A) positive: the increasing role of scientific knowledge; the development of education, the use of new types of energy, artificial materials, which open up new possibilities for the use of natural resources; mastering by a person high speeds, relatively safe opportunities to work in hard-to-reach or harmful conditions; reducing the number of people employed in production and the amount of energy and raw materials used; changes in the appearance of workers in the industry and professional structure, as well as in their qualifications.
B) negative: man-made disasters; growth of unemployment, especially among middle-aged people and young people, caused by cyclical downturns in production, the development of automation, and structural restructuring of the economy; the inability of some workers to master constantly updated knowledge turns them into “superfluous” people; numerous environmental problems.
Scientific activity presupposes freedom of creativity for scientists. But at the same time it imposes on them a certain system of values in science: universal human values and prohibitions; ethical standards that presuppose a selfless search and defense of the truth; freedom of scientific research and social responsibility of a scientist.
Already in ancient times, representatives of science showed interest not only in morality, but also with their views formed the moral norms of the scientific community (“Do no harm”). Often scientific discoveries and achievements bring new threats to humanity (cloning, means of mass destruction, etc.). It is important that scientists always understand the enormous responsibility they bear for the use of their scientific achievements. Conscientiousness as one of the most important requirements for scientific work is manifested:
In careful thought and impeccable execution of all stages of research
In proving new scientific knowledge, in their repeated testing
In scientific honesty and objectivity (“Plato is my friend, but truth is more precious”)
Refusal to introduce unfounded, untested innovations into science (practice).
Education
Self-education– knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by a person independently, without the help of other teaching persons.
Education– one of the ways of personality development through people’s acquisition of knowledge, acquisition of skills and abilities, development of mental, cognitive and creative abilities through a system of social institutions such as family, school, and the media. Target– introducing an individual to the achievements of human civilization, relaying and preserving its cultural heritage.
Main Institute modern education is school. Fulfilling the “order” of society, the school, along with educational institutions of other types, trains qualified personnel for various spheres of human activity.
Principles of state policy and legal regulation of relations in the field of education
1) recognition of the priority of the education sector;
2) ensuring everyone’s right to education, non-discrimination in the field of education;
3) the humanistic nature of education, the priority of human life and health, the free development of the individual; education of citizenship, hard work, responsibility, respect for the law, individual rights and freedoms, patriotism, respect for nature and the environment, rational use of natural resources;
4) unity of the educational space on the territory of the Russian Federation; inclusion of Russian education in the global educational space;
5) the secular nature of education in state and municipal educational organizations;
6) freedom in education according to a person’s inclinations and needs, creating conditions for self-realization of each person, etc.
7) ensuring the right to education throughout life in accordance with the needs of the individual, continuity of education; adaptability of the education system to the level of training, developmental characteristics, abilities and interests of a person.
8) autonomy of educational organizations, academic rights and freedoms of teaching staff and students provided for by this Federal Law; information openness and public reporting of educational organizations;
9) democratic, state-public nature of education management;
10) equality of rights and freedoms of participants in relations in the field of education;
11) a combination of state and contractual regulation of relations in the field of education.
Functions of education
* Transfer of social experience (knowledge, values, norms, etc.).
* Accumulation and storage of the culture of society.
* Socialization of the individual. Training of qualified personnel to maintain and increase the survival of society in the constantly changing historical conditions of its existence. Education is the most important channel of social mobility.
* Social selection (selection) of members of society, primarily young people.
* Economic – formation of the social and professional structure of society, ensuring a person’s professional orientation.
* Introduction of sociocultural innovations.
* Social control.
General trends in the development of education
1) Democratization of the education system (education has become accessible to the general population, although differences in the quality and types of educational institutions remain).
2) Increasing duration of education (modern society needs highly qualified specialists, which lengthens the duration of training).
3) Continuity of education (in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, an employee must be capable of quickly switching to new or related types of work, to new technologies).
4) Humanization of education (attention of the school and teachers to the student’s personality, his interests, needs, individual characteristics).
5) Humanitarianization of education (increasing the role of social disciplines in the educational process: economic theory, sociology, political science, fundamentals of legal knowledge).
6) Internationalization of the education process (creation of a unified education system for different countries, integration of educational systems).
7) Computerization of the education process (use of new modern teaching technologies, telecommunication networks on a global scale).
The education system includes:
1) federal state educational standards and federal state requirements, educational standards established by universities; educational programs of various types, levels and orientations;
2) organizations carrying out educational activities, teaching staff, students and their parents (legal representatives);
3) state authorities and local government bodies exercising management in the field of education, advisory, advisory and other bodies created by them;
4) organizations providing scientific, methodological, methodological, resource and information technology support for educational activities and management of the education system, assessment of the quality of education;
5) associations of legal entities, employers and their associations, public associations operating in the field of education.
Education is subdivided for general education, vocational education, additional education and vocational training, ensuring the possibility of realizing the right to education throughout life (lifelong education).
In the Russian Federation the following are established education levels: 1) preschool education; 2) primary general education; 3) basic general education; 4) secondary general education; 5) secondary vocational education; 6) higher education – bachelor’s degree; 7) higher education – specialist training, master’s degree; 8) higher education – training of highly qualified personnel.
General education allows you to master the basics of scientific knowledge necessary to understand the world around you, participate in public life and work. In the process of schooling, a person learns the norms, values and ideals of the culture of the society in which he lives, as well as the rules of everyday behavior based on the universal material of the historical experience of mankind.
Professional education prepares creators of new cultural values and is carried out mainly in specialized areas of public life (economic, political, legal, etc.). Vocational education is determined by the social division of labor and consists in the acquisition of special knowledge, practical skills and skills of productive activity in the chosen field.
Taking into account the needs and capabilities of students, education can be obtained in different forms: full-time, part-time (evening), part-time, family education, self-education, external education. A combination of different forms of education is allowed. For all forms of education within a specific basic general education or basic professional educational program, a single state educational standard applies.
According to the Law of the Russian Federation “On Education in the Russian Federation,” education is a purposeful process of upbringing, training and development in the interests of the individual, society and the state.
Religion
Religion- this is a belief in the supernatural; a set of views and ideas, a system of beliefs and rituals that unites people who recognize them into a single community; one of the forms of human adaptation to the surrounding world characteristic of culture, satisfying its spiritual needs.
Religion is a public institution that occupies an important place in the structure of society; acts as a form of social consciousness, expressing certain ideas and regulating social relations; exists in the form of a system of norms and regulations for human behavior in society.
The following groups of definitions of religion are distinguished:
1. Theological– definitions accepted in theology.
2. Philosophical allow us to look at religion as a special entity that performs important functions in society.
* I. Kant distinguished between moral and statuary religions. Moral religions are based on the faith of “pure reason”; in them, a person, with the help of his own reason, knows the divine will within himself. Statuary religions are based on historical tradition;
* G. Hegel believed that religion is one of the forms of self-knowledge of the Absolute Spirit;
* Marxist philosophy defines religion as belief in the supernatural; religion is a fantastic reflection in the heads of people of those external forces that dominate them in real life.
Psychological
* W. James believed that the truth of a religion is determined by its usefulness;
* Freud called religion “the great illusion”;
* K. Jung believed that in addition to the individual unconscious, there is a collective unconscious, which is expressed in archetypes and embodied in the images of mythology and religion.
Basic elements of religion: religious consciousness (ideology and religious psychology); religious cult (relationships); religious organizations.
Religious ideology represents a system of views concerning the existence of a supernatural force that creates the world and reigns supreme in it. Currently, religious ideology, in particular, includes: dogmatics; theology; doctrine of cults (exegesis); ecclesiastical archaeology; doctrine about the fathers of the church (patrology); history of the holy books of the church; rules for conducting services (homiletics).
Religious consciousness can be defined as a reflection of reality in fantastic images. The main features of religious consciousness are sensory clarity, the combination of content adequate to reality with illusions, faith, symbolism, and emotional richness. The central element of religious consciousness is religious faith - this is a special mental state that arises in conditions of a lack of accurate information and contributes to the effective functioning of the individual.
Religious psychology implies the emotional relationship of believers to God and his attributes, religious organizations, each other, the state, society, and nature. Predominant among them are feelings of complete dependence on God's will, obligation, guilt and fear of God.
Religious cult is a set of prescriptions indicating what, how and when to do in order to be pleasing to God. Ancient religious cults include: exaltation of gods, saints, ancestors, relics; sacrifice, sacrifice, alms; worship, sacraments, prayers; consecration of church buildings, utensils, etc.; propaganda of doctrine, books, figures, martyrs for the faith, etc.; A type of cult is magic (witchcraft) - a complex of ritual rites aimed at influencing forces hidden from humans in order to obtain material and other results. Religious acts: incantations of spirits, ritual dances, bows, kneeling, prostration, bowing of the head, sermon, prayer, confession, pilgrimage, etc.
Religious organization implies the division of believers into ordinary people and their leaders, that is, into flock and pastors or laity and clergy. The clergy unites the following religious leaders: patriarch, pope, ayatollah, etc.; synod, college of cardinals, imamate, etc.; clergy. Religious organizations also act in the form of various associations of pastors and flocks: monastic orders, religious brotherhoods, societies of believers, etc.
Religious culture- This is part of the spiritual culture of humanity, generated by the religious needs of people and designed to satisfy them. Components: elements of artistic creativity (religious art, literature, journalism), religious educational institutions, libraries and publishing houses, religious philosophical and political thought, moral norms. Specialized level of religious culture – religious teachings and confessions, esotericism; ordinary – mysticism, everyday magic and superstition.
Types of religion arising from the periodization of its development
* polydemonism (paganism):
Animism- an expression of faith in spirits and soul or the universal spirituality of nature.
Fetishism- worship of material objects - “fetishes”, to which supernatural properties are attributed.
Totemism- worship of any kind, tribe, animal or plant as its mythical ancestor and protector.
Pantheism– a “philosophical” form of religion that identifies the absolute with nature. Deism views nature and God as coexisting principles. In theism, God is understood as an infinite, personal, transcendent principle who created the world in a free act of will out of nothing.
* national religions that emerged at the stage of formation of class society and the formation of the state (Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, Judaism) express the national specificity of the people and, easily adapting to the changing world, are able to satisfy the religious needs of citizens even in modern society. Only those who belong to a given nation can profess such a religion.
* world religions, which include Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, can be professed by anyone, regardless of nationality.
Signs of world religions: a huge number of followers all over the world; egalitarianism (preach the equality of all people, appeal to representatives of all social groups); propaganda activity; cosmopolitan (inter- and supra-ethnic character; go beyond the boundaries of nations and states).
World religions
A) Buddhism– the most ancient world religion (it originated in the 6th century BC in India, and is currently widespread in the countries of South, Southeast, Central Asia and the Far East). Tradition connects the emergence of Buddhism with the name of Prince Siddhartha Gautama. Main ideas: 1) life is suffering, the cause of which is the desires and passions of people; to get rid of suffering, it is necessary to renounce earthly passions and desires; 2) rebirth after death; 3) one must strive for nirvana, that is, dispassion and peace, which are achieved by renouncing earthly attachments. Unlike Christianity and Islam, Buddhism does not have the idea of God as the creator of the world and its ruler. The essence of the teachings of Buddhism comes down to a call for every person to take the path of searching for inner freedom.
B) Christianity arose in the 1st century. n. e. in the eastern part of the Roman Empire - Palestine - as a religion addressed to all the humiliated, thirsting for justice. It is based on the idea of messianism - hope in the Divine deliverer of the world from everything bad that exists on Earth. The holy book of Christians is the Bible, which consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. Christianity split into three movements: Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism. Protestantism has three main movements: Anglicanism, Calvinism and Lutheranism.
IN) Islam arose in the 7th century. n. e. among the Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. The holy book of Muslims, the Koran. Sunnah is a collection of edifying stories about the life of the prophet, Sharia is a set of principles and rules of behavior obligatory for Muslims. The place of worship of Muslims is called a mosque. In Islam there is no clear division between clergy and laity. Any Muslim who knows the Koran, Muslim laws and rules of worship can become a mullah (priest).
Types of religion by number of gods, which are worshiped by representatives of a certain religion:
* Monotheistic religions affirm the belief in one God: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
* Polytheistic religions affirm the belief in many gods. These include all other religions of the world, including the world religion Buddhism.
Church- a social institution of society, a religious organization, which is based on a single Creed (creed), which determines religious ethics and religious activity, a system for managing the life activity and behavior of believers. Factors contributing to the formation of a church: general creed; religious activities; the church as a social phenomenon; a system for managing the life, activities and behavior of believers. The church has a certain system of norms (religious morality, canon law, etc.), values, models and sanctions.
Basic functions of religion
1) Worldview sets “ultimate” criteria, absolutes, from the point of view of which the world, society, and people are comprehended.
2) Compensatory(therapeutic) compensates for the limitations, dependence, and powerlessness of people in terms of restructuring consciousness, changing the objective conditions of existence. The psychological aspect of compensation is important - stress relief, consolation, meditation, spiritual pleasure.
3) Communicative provides two types of communication: believers with each other; believers - with God, angels, souls of the dead, saints in liturgy, prayer, meditation, etc.
4) Regulatory organizes in a certain way the thoughts, aspirations of people, and their activities.
5) Integrating unites individuals and groups if they recognize a more or less unified, common religion, which contributes to the preservation of stability and stability of the individual, social groups, institutions and society as a whole (integrating function). Separates individuals and groups if in their religious consciousness and behavior tendencies that do not agree with each other are found, if in social groups and society there are different and opposing confessions (disintegrating function).
6) Cultural-transmitting promotes the development of certain foundations of culture - writing, printing, art; ensures the protection and development of the values of religious culture; carries out the transfer of accumulated heritage from generation to generation.
7) Legitimizing legitimizes certain social orders, institutions (state, political, legal, etc.), relationships, norms.
8) Epistemological (cognitive)– in its own way answers questions that science cannot illuminate.
9) Ethical– justifies morality, moral values and ideals of society.
10) Social– integrates, unites people not according to family, national or racial characteristics, but according to spiritual and dogmatic ones, which is much broader;
11) Spiritual– fills life with meaning, opens up the prospect of personal self-improvement and eternal life, immortality, answers the question about the meaning of human life and existence.
Religion, being an integral part of spiritual culture, has had a tremendous influence on its entire development: religion has given humanity “holy books” (Vedas, Bible, Koran); European "architecture and sculpture of the Middle Ages were the "Bible in stone" ( Pitirim Sorokin); the music was almost exclusively religious in nature; painting was largely based on religious subjects; Byzantine and Old Russian schools of icon painting were a notable phenomenon in the history of world culture. The church played an important role in the spread of literacy. Temples were not only places of worship, but also remarkable historical and architectural monuments; some cathedrals had libraries, and chronicles were kept. Churches carried out merciful and charitable activities, helping the sick, disabled, poor, and beggars. The monasteries carried out significant economic work, often developing new lands and engaging in productive agriculture (the monastery on the Solovetsky Islands, etc.). The church acted as a powerful source of patriotism. Known role Sergius of Radonezh in the liberation of Rus' from foreign yoke. From the very beginning of the Great Patriotic War, the activities of the clergy contributed to the nationwide struggle against the invaders.
The role of religion in the modern world:
1. A huge number of people living on Earth are religious people.
2. The influence of religion on the political life of modern society remains significant. A number of states recognize religion as state and compulsory.
3. Religion remains one of the most important sources of moral values and norms, regulates the daily life of people, and preserves the principles of universal morality.
4. Religious contradictions continue to be a source and breeding ground for bloody conflicts, terrorism, a force of separation and confrontation.
Modern world religions strive to contribute to the peaceful coexistence of states on the planet, engage in charitable activities, and strive to maintain their moral authority.
Art
Art 1) in a narrow sense, this is a specific form of practical-spiritual mastery of the world; 2) in broad terms – the highest level of skill, regardless of what sphere of social life they are manifested in (the art of a stove maker, a doctor, a baker, etc.).
Art– a special subsystem of the spiritual sphere of social life, which is a creative reproduction of reality in artistic images; one of the forms of social consciousness, the most important component of spiritual culture; an artistic and figurative form of human cognitive activity, a way of aesthetically expressing one’s inner state.
Versions of the relationship between nature and art
A) Kant reduced art to imitation.
b) Schelling And German romantics put art above nature.
V) Hegel placed art below philosophy and religion, believing that it is burdened with sensuality, that is, it expresses a spiritual idea in a form that is inadequate to it.
Theories of the origin of art
1. Biologizer– the origin of art from the need to attract the attention of the opposite sex. Art arises from emotional excitement, a psyche in a state of conflict, in moments of transformation and switching of the energy of elementary drives to the goals of high creative activity.
2. Gaming– the reasons for the emergence of art in the need for a person to spend energy not spent in work, in the need for training to master social roles.
3. Magical: art is a form of various types of magic introduced into the everyday activities of primitive man.
4. Labor: art is the result of labor (the useful qualities of produced objects become an object of artistic pleasure).
Differences between art and other forms of social consciousness
– Art understands the world through imaginative thinking (if reality is presented holistically in art, then the essence appears in the richness of its sensory manifestations, individual and unique).
– Art does not aim to provide any special information about private sectors of social practice and to identify their patterns, such as physical, economic and others. Art, as a special specific branch of spiritual production, masters reality aesthetically, from the standpoint of the main aesthetic categories: “beautiful”, “sublime”, “tragic” and “comic”.
– Holistic-imaginative and aesthetic principles of artistic consciousness distinguish art from morality.
Functions of art
1) socially transformative– having an ideological and aesthetic impact on people, includes them in targeted activities to transform society;
2) artistic and conceptual– analyzes the state of the surrounding world;
3) educational– shapes the personality, feelings and thoughts of people; fosters humanistic qualities of the human personality;
4) aesthetic– forms the aesthetic tastes and needs of a person;
5) consolatory-compensatory– restores harmony in the sphere of spirit, lost by a person in reality, contributes to the preservation and restoration of mental balance of the individual;
6) anticipations– anticipates the future;
7) suggestive– affects the subconscious of people, the human psyche;
8) hedonistic(from Greek pleasure) – gives people pleasure; teaches people to have a positive attitude towards the world, to look into the future with optimism;
9) cognitive-heuristic– reflects and masters those aspects of life that are difficult for science;
10) synthesizing– is a treasury of images and symbols that express values that are significant to a person;
11) communicative– connects people together, serves as a means of communication and communication;
12) recreational– serves as a means of relaxation, liberation from everyday work and worries.
The main category of art is artistic image. An artistic image is a part or component of a work of art; the way of being of a work of art taken as a whole. The inextricable connection of artistic meaning with material, sensory embodiment distinguishes an artistic image from a scientific concept, abstract thought. The meaning that makes up the content of an artistic image is created by the artist in the expectation that it will be conveyed and accessible to others. The material, sensually perceived form (visual and sound) provides such an opportunity and acts as a sign.
Under sign refers to any material phenomenon created or used with the aim of conveying any information with its help. This visual, expressive, verbal And conventional signs. The peculiarity of artistic signs is that, regardless of what they depict, express or designate, they themselves should always cause aesthetic pleasure. The spiritual content of an artistic image can be tragic, comic, etc., but the impression from its iconic material form represents the experience of beauty, beauty. The iconic form of an artistic image is subject not only to the communicative and aesthetic principle, but also to the psychological requirement to attract, hold and switch the attention of the viewer and listener.
Classification
1) by the amount of funds used: a) simple (painting, sculpture, poetry, music); b) complex or synthetic (ballet, theater, cinema);
2) according to the relationship between a work of art and reality: a) pictorial, depicting reality by copying it (realistic painting, sculpture, photography); b) expressive, where the artist’s fantasy and imagination create a new reality (ornament, music);
3) in relation to space and time: a) spatial (fine arts, sculpture, architecture); b) temporary (literature, music); c) spatio-temporal (theater, cinema);
4) by time of occurrence: a) traditional (poetry, dance, music); b) new (photography, cinema, television, video), usually using quite complex technical means to build an image;
5) according to the degree of applicability in everyday life: a) applied (decorative and applied arts); b) graceful (music, dance).
There are three types of spatial arts: easel(easel painting, easel graphics, etc.), monumental(monumental sculpture, wall painting, etc.) and applied(standard mass architecture, small sculpture, miniature painting, industrial graphics, posters, etc.).
In verbal-temporal arts there are three types: epic(novel, poem, etc.), lyrics(poems, etc.) and drama(various plays, etc.).
Kinds of art- these are historically established forms of artistic reflection of the world, using special means to build an image - sound, color, body movement, words, etc. Each type of art has its own special varieties - genera and genres, which together provide a variety of artistic attitudes to reality . Let's briefly consider the main types of art and some of their varieties.
* The primary form of art was a special syncretic (undifferentiated) complex of creative activity. For primitive man there was no separate music, or literature, or theater. Everything was merged together in a single ritual action. Later, separate types of art began to emerge from this syncretic action.
* Literature uses verbal and written means to construct images. The main types of literature: drama, epic and lyric. Genres: tragedy, comedy, novel, story, poem, elegy, story, essay, feuilleton, etc.
*Music uses sound. Music is divided into vocal (intended for singing) and instrumental. Genres: opera, symphony, overture, suite, romance, sonata, etc.
*Dance uses plastic movements to construct images. There are ritual, folk, ballroom, modern dances, and ballet. Dance directions and styles: waltz, tango, foxtrot, samba, polonaise, etc.
* Painting reflects reality on a plane using color. Genres: portrait, still life, landscape, everyday life, animalistic (depiction of animals), historical.
* Architecture forms the spatial environment in the form of structures and buildings for human life. It is divided into residential, public, garden and park, industrial, etc. Architectural styles: Gothic, Baroque, Rococo, Art Nouveau, Classicism, etc.
* Sculpture creates works of art that have volume and three-dimensional form. The sculpture can be round (bust, statue) and relief (convex image); by size: easel, decorative, monumental.
* Decorative and applied arts are associated with applied needs. This includes artistic objects that can be used in everyday life - dishes, fabrics, tools, furniture, clothing, jewelry, etc.
* The theater organizes a special stage performance through the performance of actors. The theater can be dramatic, opera, puppet, etc.
* Circus is a spectacular and entertaining event with unusual, risky and funny acts in a special arena: acrobatics, balancing act, gymnastics, horse riding, juggling, magic tricks, pantomime, clowning, animal training, etc.
* Cinema is a development of theatrical performance based on modern technical audiovisual means. Types of cinema include feature films, documentaries, and animation. By genre: comedy, drama, melodrama, adventure film, detective, thriller, etc.
* Photography captures documentary visual images using technical means - optical, chemical or digital. The genres of photography correspond to the genres of painting.
* Variety includes small forms of stage art - drama, music, choreography, illusions, circus acts, original performances, etc.
To the listed types of art you can add graphics, radio art, etc.
In different eras and in different artistic movements, the boundaries between genres are more strict (for example, in classicism), in others - less (romanticism) or even conditional (realism). In modern art there is a tendency to deny the genre as a stable form of artistic creativity (postmodernism).
True art is always elitist. True art, as the essence of religion and philosophy, is open to everyone and is created for everyone.
Spiritual- this is creativity in everything, and philosophy And faith- poetry of the spirit. Berdyaev defines philosophy as “the art of knowledge in freedom through the creativity of ideas...”. Creativity is not auxiliary to metaphysics and ethics, but permeates them and fills them with life. Beauty is as important for the holistic spiritual development of a person as truth and goodness: harmony is created by their unity in love. That is why the great Russian writer and thinker F. M. Dostoevsky, repeating Plato’s thought, said that “beauty will save the world.”
Morality
Morality– 1) a form of social consciousness, consisting of a system of values and requirements that regulate people’s behavior; 2) the system of norms, ideals, principles accepted in society, and its expression in the real lives of people. Moral– principles of real practical behavior of people. Ethics– philosophical science, the subject of which is morality and morality.
Approaches to the Origin of Morality
– Naturalistic: considers morality as a simple continuation, a complication of the group feelings of animals that ensure the survival of the species in the struggle for existence. Representatives of naturalism in ethics reduce the social to the biological, erasing the qualitative line that distinguishes the human psyche from the animal.
– Religious-idealistic: views morality as a gift from God.
– Sociological: considers morality as a phenomenon that arose along with communication and collective labor actions and ensures their regulation. The main reasons that gave rise to the need for moral regulation are the development and complication of social relations: the emergence of surplus product and the need for its distribution; gender and age division of labor; identification of clans within the tribe; streamlining sexual relations, etc.
Morality rests on three important foundations:
* Traditions, customs, morals, which have developed in a given society, in the environment of a given class, social group. A person learns these morals, traditional norms of behavior, which become habits and become the property of the spiritual world of the individual. They are realized in his behavior, the motives of which are formulated as follows: “this is how it is accepted” or “this is not accepted”, “everyone does it this way”, “like people, so do I”, “this is how things have been done since ancient times”, etc.
* Based on the strength of public opinion, which, by approving some actions and condemning others, regulates the behavior of an individual and teaches him to comply with moral standards. The instruments of public opinion are, on the one hand, honor, good name, public recognition, which become the result of a person’s conscientious performance of his duties, his strict adherence to the moral norms of a given society; on the other hand, shame, shaming a person who has violated moral standards.
* Based on consciousness of each individual, on her understanding of the need to reconcile personal and public interests. This determines voluntary choice, voluntariness of behavior, which occurs when conscience becomes a solid basis for the moral behavior of an individual.
In relation to a person’s personality, morality is an internal form of self-regulation by an individual of his behavior. Morality is disinterested, personal, represents a special kind of knowledge, and is an essential characteristic of spiritual knowledge.
Moral consciousness is of a value nature. It is oriented toward a certain absolute moral ideal that arises in society, but is taken beyond its boundaries, acting as a criterion and assessment of both social phenomena and individual human behavior and his motives.
Moral standard is aimed at developing certain moral qualities in a person: the desire for goodness and self-improvement, helping other people, courage, being ready to endure hardships and fight for the truth. A norm is understood as a prescription (decision, instruction, instruction, directive, order, program, etc.), with which a certain action must (may or may not) be performed in order to achieve specified goals.
Moral norm determines socially necessary typical options for moral behavior; a means that gives orientation to the human personality, indicates which offenses are acceptable and preferable and which should be avoided.
The main property of moral norms is their imperativeness (imperativeness). They express moral requirements. One and the same norm, say, the requirement of justice, can be expressed simultaneously both in the form of a prohibition and as a positive instruction: “don’t lie,” “tell only the truth.” Norms are addressed to a person, to his activities and behavior. A conscious set of norms is defined as moral code. The main elements of a moral code are the following: socially significant instructions, attitude-orientation, the individual’s readiness for proper requirements and objective conditions that allow the implementation of appropriate proper behavior.
Another component of a moral code is value orientations: 1) moral significance, dignity of the individual (group of persons, collective) and his actions or moral characteristics of public institutions; 2) value ideas related to the field of moral consciousness - ideals, concepts of good and evil, justice, happiness.
Motivation, assessment and self-esteem. Motivation, evaluation and self-esteem are important ways of morally regulating people's behavior. Motive is a morally conscious impulse to engage in activities related to satisfying the needs of the subject. Motivation- a system of motives interconnected in a certain way, meaning the preference of certain values, goals in the moral choice of an individual, a conscious determination of the line of one’s behavior.
Moral assessment allows you to determine the value of an action, a person’s behavior, their compliance with certain norms, principles, and ideals; This is an independent determination of the value of one’s behavior, one’s motives and actions. It is closely related to the sense of conscience and duty and acts as an important tool of self-control.
Conscience– the ability of an individual to exercise moral self-control, independently formulate moral duties for himself, demand that he fulfill them, and make a self-assessment of his actions; is an expression of moral self-awareness and well-being of the individual; allows a person to realize his moral responsibility to himself as a subject of moral choice and to other people, society as a whole.
Duty- This is the relationship of the individual to society. The individual acts here as an active bearer of certain moral responsibilities to society.
Functions of morality
* Worldview. Morality develops a system of value orientations: norms, prohibitions, assessments, ideals, which become a necessary component of social consciousness, orient the individual, express preference for certain norms and the command to act in accordance with them.
* Cognitive. It is not identical to scientific knowledge, it orients a person in the world of surrounding cultural values, predetermines the preference of those that meet his needs and interests.
* Regulatory. Morality acts as a way of regulating people's behavior in work, in everyday life, in politics, in science, in family, intra-group and other relationships. It authorizes and supports certain social foundations, a way of life, or requires their change. Morality rests on the strength of public opinion. Moral sanctions are more flexible, varied, and come in the form of not only coercion, persuasion, but also approval by public opinion.
* Estimated. Morality considers the world, phenomena and processes from the point of view of their humanistic potential. A morally evaluative attitude towards reality is its comprehension in the concepts of good and evil, as well as in other concepts adjacent to them or derived from them (“justice” and “injustice”, “honor” and “dishonor”, “nobility” and “baseness” etc.). Moreover, the specific form of expression of moral assessment can be different: praise, agreement, blame, criticism, expressed in value judgments; showing approval or disapproval.
* Educational. By concentrating the moral experience of humanity, morality makes it the property of every new generation of people. Morality permeates all types of education insofar as it gives them the correct social orientation through moral ideals and goals, which ensures a harmonious combination of personal and social interests.
* Motivational. Moral principles motivate human behavior, that is, they act as reasons and motivations that make an individual want to do or not do something.
* Controlling. Control over the implementation of norms based on public condemnation and/or the conscience of the person himself.
* Coordination. Morality ensures unity and consistency in the interactions of people in a wide variety of circumstances.
* Integrating. Maintaining the unity of humanity and the integrity of the human spiritual world.
Moral requirements and ideas
– norms of behavior (“don’t lie”, “don’t steal”, “don’t kill”, “honor your elders”, etc.);
– moral qualities (benevolence, justice, wisdom, etc.);
– moral principles (collectivism – individualism; egoism – altruism, etc.);
– moral and psychological mechanisms (duty, conscience);
– highest moral values (goodness, meaning of life, freedom, happiness).
Moral culture of the individual– the degree of individual’s perception of the moral consciousness and culture of society. The structure of a person’s moral culture: culture of ethical thinking, culture of feelings, culture of behavior, etiquette.
Morality manifests itself in understanding the opposition of good and evil. Good is understood as the most important personal and social value and correlates with a person’s desire to maintain the unity of interpersonal relationships and achieve moral perfection. If good is creative, then evil is everything that destroys interpersonal connections and decomposes a person’s inner world.
Human freedom, his ability to choose between good and evil, is called moral choice. A person is responsible to society and to himself (his conscience) for the consequences of his moral choice.
Differences between moral norms and customs and legal norms: 1) following a custom presupposes unquestioning and literal submission to its requirements, moral norms presuppose a person’s meaningful and free choice; 2) customs are different for different peoples, eras, social groups, morality is universal, it sets general norms for all humanity; 3) the implementation of customs is often based on habit and fear of the disapproval of others, morality is based on a sense of duty and is supported by a sense of shame and remorse.
Unlike other manifestations of the spiritual life of society (science, art, religion), morality is not a sphere of organized activity: there are no institutions in society that would ensure the functioning and development of morality. Moral requirements and assessments penetrate into all spheres of human life and activity.
Universal Moral Principles
1. The talion principle. In the Old Testament, the talion formula is expressed as follows: “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.” In primitive society, talion was carried out in the form of blood feud, and the punishment had to strictly correspond to the harm caused.
2. The principle of morality. The golden rule of morality can be found among the sayings of the ancient sages: Buddha, Confucius, Thales, Muhammad, Christ. In its most general form, this rule looks like this: “(Don’t) act towards others as you (wouldn’t) want them to act towards you.” The commandment of love becomes the main universal principle in Christianity.
3. The principle of the golden mean presented in works Aristotle: Avoid extremes and keep it in moderation. All moral virtues are a mean between two vices (for example, courage is located between cowardice and recklessness) and go back to the virtue of moderation, which allows a person to curb his passions with the help of reason.
4. The Greatest Happiness Principle (I. Bentham, J. Mill): Everyone should behave in such a way as to ensure the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. An action is moral if the benefit from it outweighs the harm.
5. Principle of justice (J. Rawls): Every person should have equal rights with regard to fundamental freedoms; social and economic inequalities must be adjusted to the benefit of the poor.
Each universal principle expresses a certain moral ideal, which is mainly understood as philanthropy.
Amoralism
In modern society, in popular culture and through the media, the belief is often introduced that there are different moralities, that what was previously considered immoral can now be completely acceptable and permissible. This indicates an erosion of the strictness of the moral criterion, clarity and clarity in distinguishing between good and evil. The loss of morality leads to the destruction of the very basis of sociality, connections between people, laws and norms. As a result, the entire social system collapses, imperceptibly and gradually undermined from within.
Immorality associated with the concepts of selfishness, passion and sin. Passions (mental, physical) are what lead along the path opposite to virtue and self-knowledge.
In order for society to progress in its development, the unity of civil society and its fight against immorality in all its manifestations is necessary. It must be carried out through upbringing, education, spiritual development, persuasion and enlightenment. Violence is impossible in the moral sphere, just as goodness with fists is impossible, although it must be active.
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