Isaac Newton education. The great scientist Isaac Newton
The great English physicist, mathematician and astronomer. The author of the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (lat. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica), in which he described the law of universal gravitation and the so-called Newton’s Laws, which laid the foundations of classical mechanics. He developed differential and integral calculus, color theory and many other mathematical and physical theories.
Isaac Newton, the son of a small but prosperous farmer, was born in the village of Woolsthorpe (Lincolnshire), in the year of Galileo's death and on the eve of the Civil War. Newton's father did not live to see his son born. The boy was born sickly, prematurely, but still survived and lived for 84 years. Newton considered the fact of being born on Christmas a special sign of fate.
The boy's patron was his maternal uncle, William Ayscough. After graduating from school (1661), Newton entered Trinity College (College of the Holy Trinity) at the University of Cambridge. Even then, his powerful character took shape - scientific meticulousness, the desire to get to the bottom of things, intolerance to deception and oppression, indifference to public fame. As a child, Newton, according to contemporaries, was withdrawn and isolated, loved to read and make technical toys: a clock, a mill, etc.
Apparently, the scientific support and inspiration for Newton’s work were largely the physicists: Galileo, Descartes and Kepler. Newton completed their work by combining them into a universal system of the world. Other mathematicians and physicists had a lesser but significant influence: Euclid, Fermat, Huygens, Mercator, Wallis. Of course, the enormous influence of his immediate teacher Barrow cannot be underestimated.
It seems that Newton made a significant part of his mathematical discoveries while still a student, during the “plague years” of 1664-1666. At the age of 23, he was already fluent in the methods of differential and integral calculus, including series expansion of functions and what was later called the Newton-Leibniz formula. At the same time, according to him, he discovered the law of universal gravitation, or rather, he became convinced that this law follows from Kepler’s third law. In addition, during these years Newton proved that white color is a mixture of colors, derived the formula of “Newton’s binomial” for an arbitrary rational exponent (including negative ones), etc.
1667: The plague subsides and Newton returns to Cambridge. Elected a fellow of Trinity College, and in 1668 he became a master.
In 1669, Newton was elected professor of mathematics, Barrow's successor. Barrow forwarded to London Newton's "Analysis by Equations of Infinite Number of Terms," which contained a condensed summary of some of his most important discoveries in analysis. It gained some fame in England and abroad. Newton is preparing a complete version of this work, but is still unable to find a publisher. It was published only in 1711.
Experiments in optics and color theory continue. Newton studies spherical and chromatic aberration. To reduce them to a minimum, he builds a mixed reflecting telescope (lens and concave spherical mirror, which he polishes himself). He is seriously interested in alchemy and conducts a lot of chemical experiments.
1672: Demonstration of the reflector in London - universally rave reviews. Newton becomes famous and is elected a member of the Royal Society (British Academy of Sciences). Later, improved reflectors of this design became the main tools of astronomers, with their help other galaxies, red shifts, etc. were discovered.
A controversy breaks out over the nature of light with Hooke, Huygens and others. Newton makes a vow for the future: not to get involved in scientific disputes.
1680: Newton receives a letter from Hooke with the formulation of the law of universal gravitation, which, according to the former, served as the reason for his work on determining planetary motions (though then postponed for some time), which formed the subject of the Principia. Subsequently, Newton, for some reason, perhaps suspecting Hooke of illegally borrowing some earlier results of Newton himself, does not want to recognize any of Hooke’s merits here, but then agrees to do so, although rather reluctantly and not completely.
1684-1686: work on “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy” (the entire three-volume work was published in 1687). The Cartesians gained worldwide fame and fierce criticism: the law of universal gravitation introduces long-range action that is incompatible with the principles of Descartes.
1696: By royal decree, Newton was appointed Warden of the Mint (from 1699 - Director). He vigorously pursues monetary reform, restoring confidence in the British monetary system, which had been thoroughly neglected by his predecessors.
1699: the beginning of an open priority dispute with Leibniz, in which even the reigning persons were involved. This absurd quarrel between two geniuses cost science dearly - the English mathematical school soon withered for a whole century, and the European school ignored many of Newton’s outstanding ideas, rediscovering them much later. On the continent, Newton was accused of stealing the results of Hooke, Leibniz and the astronomer Flamsteed, as well as of heresy. Even the death of Leibniz (1716) did not extinguish the conflict.
1703: Newton is elected president of the Royal Society, which he rules for twenty years.
1705: Queen Anne knights Newton. From now on he is Sir Isaac Newton. For the first time in English history, the title of knight was awarded for scientific merit.
Newton devoted the last years of his life to writing the Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, which he worked on for about 40 years, and preparing the third edition of the Elements.
In 1725, Newton's health began to deteriorate noticeably (stone disease), and he moved to Kensington near London, where he died at night, in his sleep, on March 20 (31), 1727.
The inscription on his grave reads:
Here lies Sir Isaac Newton, the nobleman who, with an almost divine mind, was the first to prove with the torch of mathematics the motion of the planets, the paths of comets, and the tides of the oceans.
He investigated the difference in light rays and the various properties of colors that appeared at the same time, which no one had previously suspected. A diligent, wise and faithful interpreter of nature, antiquity and Holy Scripture, he affirmed with his philosophy the greatness of Almighty God, and with his disposition he expressed evangelical simplicity.
Let mortals rejoice that such an adornment of the human race existed.
Named after Newton:
craters on the Moon and Mars;
SI unit of force.
The statue erected to Newton in 1755 at Trinity College bears the following verses from Lucretius:
Qui genus humanum ingenio superavit (He was superior to the human race in intelligence)
Scientific activity
A new era in physics and mathematics is associated with Newton's work. Powerful analytical methods appear in mathematics, and there is a breakthrough in the development of analysis and mathematical physics. In physics, the main method of studying nature is the construction of adequate mathematical models of natural processes and intensive research of these models with the systematic use of the full power of the new mathematical apparatus. Subsequent centuries have proven the exceptional fruitfulness of this approach.
According to A. Einstein, “Newton was the first who tried to formulate elementary laws that determine the time course of a wide class of processes in nature with a high degree of completeness and accuracy” and “... had with his works a deep and strong influence on the entire worldview as a whole.”
Mathematical analysis
Newton developed differential and integral calculus simultaneously with G. Leibniz (a little earlier) and independently of him.
Before Newton, operations with infinitesimals were not linked into a single theory and had the character of isolated ingenious techniques (see Method of indivisibles), at least there was no published systematic formulation and the power of analytical techniques for solving such complex problems as the problems of celestial mechanics in their entirety. The creation of mathematical analysis reduces the solution of relevant problems, to a large extent, to a technical level. A complex of concepts, operations and symbols appeared, which became the starting point for the further development of mathematics. The next century, the 18th century, was a century of rapid and extremely successful development of analytical methods.
Apparently, Newton came to the idea of analysis through difference methods, which he studied extensively and deeply. True, in his “Principles” Newton almost did not use infinitesimals, adhering to ancient (geometric) methods of proof, but in other works he used them freely.
The starting point for differential and integral calculus were the works of Cavalieri and especially Fermat, who already knew how (for algebraic curves) to draw tangents, find extrema, inflection points and curvature of a curve, and calculate the area of its segment. Among other predecessors, Newton himself named Wallis, Barrow and the Scottish astronomer James Gregory. There was no concept of a function yet; he interpreted all curves kinematically as trajectories of a moving point.
Already as a student, Newton realized that differentiation and integration are mutually inverse operations (apparently, the first published work containing this result in the form of a detailed analysis of the duality of the area problem and the tangent problem belongs to Newton's teacher Barrow).
For almost 30 years Newton did not bother to publish his version of the analysis, although in letters (in particular to Leibniz) he willingly shared much of what he had achieved. Meanwhile, Leibniz's version had been spreading widely and openly throughout Europe since 1676. Only in 1693 did the first presentation of Newton's version appear - in the form of an appendix to Wallis's Treatise on Algebra. We have to admit that Newton’s terminology and symbolism are rather clumsy in comparison with Leibniz’s: fluxion (derivative), fluenta (antiderivative), moment of magnitude (differential), etc. Only Newton’s notation “o” for an infinitesimal dt has been preserved in mathematics (however , this letter was used earlier by Gregory in the same sense), and even a dot above the letter as a symbol of the derivative with respect to time.
Newton published a fairly complete statement of the principles of analysis only in the work “On the Quadrature of Curves” (1704), an appendix to his monograph “Optics”. Almost all of the material presented was ready back in the 1670-1680s, but only now Gregory and Halley persuaded Newton to publish the work, which, 40 years late, became Newton’s first printed work on analysis. Here, Newton introduced derivatives of higher orders, found the values of the integrals of various rational and irrational functions, and gave examples of solving 1st order differential equations.
1711: "Analysis by Equations with an Infinite Number of Terms" is finally published, after 40 years. Newton explores both algebraic and “mechanical” curves (cycloid, quadratrix) with equal ease. Partial derivatives appear, but for some reason there is no rule for differentiating a fraction and a complex function, although Newton knew them; however, Leibniz had already published them at that time.
In the same year, “The Method of Differences” was published, where Newton proposed an interpolation formula for drawing through (n + 1) given points with equally spaced or unequally spaced abscissas of a parabolic curve of the nth order. This is a difference analogue of Taylor's formula.
1736: The final work, “The Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series,” is published posthumously, significantly advanced compared to “Analysis by Equations.” Numerous examples are given of finding extrema, tangents and normals, calculating radii and centers of curvature in Cartesian and polar coordinates, finding inflection points, etc. In the same work, quadratures and straightenings of various curves were performed.
It should be noted that Newton not only developed the analysis quite fully, but also made an attempt to strictly substantiate its principles. If Leibniz was inclined to the idea of actual infinitesimals, then Newton proposed (in the Principia) a general theory of passage to limits, which he somewhat floridly called the “method of first and last relations.” The modern term “limes” is used, although there is no clear description of the essence of this term, implying an intuitive understanding.
The theory of limits is set out in 11 lemmas in Book I of the Elements; one lemma is also in book II. There is no arithmetic of limits, there is no proof of the uniqueness of the limit, and its connection with infinitesimals has not been revealed. However, Newton rightly points out the greater rigor of this approach compared to the “rough” method of indivisibles.
Nevertheless, in Book II, by introducing moments (differentials), Newton again confuses the matter, in fact considering them as actual infinitesimals.
Other mathematical achievements
Newton made his first mathematical discoveries back in his student years: the classification of algebraic curves of the 3rd order (curves of the 2nd order were studied by Fermat) and the binomial expansion of an arbitrary (not necessarily integer) degree, from which Newton’s theory of infinite series began - a new and powerful tool of analysis . Newton considered series expansion to be the main and general method of analyzing functions, and in this matter he reached the heights of mastery. He used series to calculate tables, solve equations (including differential ones), and study the behavior of functions. Newton was able to obtain expansions for all the functions that were standard at that time.
In 1707, the book “Universal Arithmetic” was published. It presents a variety of numerical methods.
Newton always paid great attention to the approximate solution of equations. Newton's famous method made it possible to find the roots of equations with previously unimaginable speed and accuracy (published in Wallis' Algebra, 1685). Newton's iterative method was given its modern form by Joseph Raphson (1690).
It is noteworthy that Newton was not at all interested in number theory. Apparently, physics was much closer to mathematics to him.
Theory of gravity
The very idea of the universal force of gravity was repeatedly expressed before Newton. Previously, Epicurus, Kepler, Descartes, Huygens, Hooke and others thought about it. Kepler believed that gravity is inversely proportional to the distance to the Sun and extends only in the ecliptic plane; Descartes considered it the result of vortices in the ether. There were, however, guesses with the correct formula (Bulliald, Wren, Hooke), and even quite seriously substantiated (using the correlation of Huygens' formula for centrifugal force and Kepler's third law for circular orbits). But before Newton, no one was able to clearly and mathematically conclusively connect the law of gravity (a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance) and the laws of planetary motion (Kepler's laws).
It is important to note that Newton did not simply publish a proposed formula for the law of universal gravitation, but actually proposed a complete mathematical model in the context of a well-developed, complete, explicit and systematic approach to mechanics:
law of gravitation;
law of motion (Newton's 2nd law);
system of methods for mathematical research (mathematical analysis).
Taken together, this triad is sufficient for a complete study of the most complex movements of celestial bodies, thereby creating the foundations of celestial mechanics. Before Einstein, no fundamental amendments to this model were needed, although the mathematical apparatus was very significantly developed.
Newton's theory of gravity caused many years of debate and criticism of the concept of long-range action.
The first argument in favor of the Newtonian model was the rigorous derivation of Kepler's empirical laws on its basis. The next step was the theory of the movement of comets and the Moon, set out in the “Principles”. Later, with the help of Newtonian gravity, all observed movements of celestial bodies were explained with high accuracy; This is a great merit of Clairaut and Laplace.
The first observable corrections to Newton's theory in astronomy (explained by general relativity) were discovered only more than 200 years later (shift of the perihelion of Mercury). However, they are also very small within the solar system.
Newton also discovered the cause of tides: the gravity of the Moon (even Galileo considered tides to be a centrifugal effect). Moreover, having processed many years of data on the height of tides, he calculated the mass of the Moon with good accuracy.
Another consequence of gravity was the precession of the earth's axis. Newton found out that due to the oblateness of the Earth at the poles, the earth's axis undergoes a constant slow displacement with a period of 26,000 years under the influence of the attraction of the Moon and the Sun. Thus, the ancient problem of “anticipation of the equinoxes” (first noted by Hipparchus) found a scientific explanation.
Optics and theory of light
Newton made fundamental discoveries in optics. He built the first mirror telescope (reflector), in which, unlike purely lens telescopes, there was no chromatic aberration. He also discovered the dispersion of light, showed that white light is decomposed into the colors of the rainbow due to the different refraction of rays of different colors when passing through a prism, and laid the foundations of the correct theory of colors.
During this period there were many speculative theories of light and color; Basically, they fought between the points of view of Aristotle (“different colors are a mixture of light and darkness in different proportions”) and Descartes (“different colors are created when light particles rotate at different speeds”). Hooke, in his Micrographia (1665), proposed a variant of Aristotelian views. Many believed that color is an attribute not of light, but of an illuminated object. The general discord was aggravated by a cascade of discoveries in the 17th century: diffraction (1665, Grimaldi), interference (1665, Hooke), double refraction (1670, Erasmus Bartholin, studied by Huygens), estimation of the speed of light (1675, Roemer), significant improvements in telescopes. There was no theory of light compatible with all these facts.
In his speech to the Royal Society, Newton refuted both Aristotle and Descartes, and convincingly proved that white light is not primary, but consists of colored components with different angles of refraction. These components are primary - Newton could not change their color with any tricks. Thus, the subjective sensation of color received a solid objective basis - the refractive index.
Newton created the mathematical theory of interference rings discovered by Hooke, which have since been called “Newton’s Rings.”
In 1689, Newton stopped research in the field of optics - according to a widespread legend, he vowed not to publish anything in this area during the life of Hooke, who constantly pestered Newton with criticism that was painful for the latter. In any case, in 1704, the next year after Hooke’s death, the monograph “Optics” was published. During the author’s lifetime, “Optics,” like “Principles,” went through three editions and many translations.
Book one of the monograph contained the principles of geometric optics, the doctrine of light dispersion and the composition of white color with various applications.
Book two: interference of light in thin plates.
Book three: diffraction and polarization of light. Newton explained polarization during birefringence closer to the truth than Huygens (a supporter of the wave nature of light), although the explanation of the phenomenon itself was unsuccessful, in the spirit of the emission theory of light.
Newton is often considered a proponent of the corpuscular theory of light; in fact, as usual, he “did not invent hypotheses” and readily admitted that light could also be associated with waves in the ether. In his monograph, Newton described in detail the mathematical model of light phenomena, leaving aside the question of the physical carrier of light.
Other works in physics
Newton was the first to derive the speed of sound in a gas, based on the Boyle-Mariotte law.
He predicted the oblateness of the Earth at the poles, approximately 1:230. At the same time, Newton used a homogeneous fluid model to describe the Earth, applied the law of universal gravitation and took into account centrifugal force. At the same time, Huygens performed similar calculations on similar grounds; he considered gravity as if its source was in the center of the planet, since, apparently, he did not believe in the universal nature of the force of gravity, that is, ultimately he did not take into account the gravity of the deformed surface layer of the planet. Accordingly, Huygens predicted a compression less than half that of Newton, 1:576. Moreover, Cassini and other Cartesians argued that the Earth is not compressed, but bulged at the poles like a lemon. Subsequently, although not immediately (the first measurements were inaccurate), direct measurements (Clerot, 1743) confirmed Newton’s correctness; actual compression is 1:298. The reason this value differs from that proposed by Newton in favor of Huygens’s is that the model of a homogeneous liquid is still not entirely accurate (density increases noticeably with depth). A more accurate theory, explicitly taking into account the dependence of density on depth, was developed only in the 19th century.
Other works
In parallel with the research that laid the foundation of the current scientific (physical and mathematical) tradition, Newton devoted a lot of time to alchemy, as well as theology. He did not publish any works on alchemy, and the only known result of this long-term hobby was the serious poisoning of Newton in 1691.
It is paradoxical that Newton, who worked for many years at the College of the Holy Trinity, apparently himself did not believe in the Trinity. Researchers of his theological works, such as L. More, believe that Newton's religious views were close to Arianism.
Newton proposed his own version of biblical chronology, leaving behind a significant number of manuscripts on these issues. In addition, he wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse. Newton's theological manuscripts are now kept in Jerusalem, in the National Library.
The Secret Works of Isaac Newton
As is known, shortly before the end of his life, Isaac refuted all the theories put forward by himself and burned the documents that contained the secret of their refutation: some had no doubt that everything was exactly like that, while others believe that such actions would be simply absurd and claim that the archive complete with documents, but only belongs to a select few...
Sir Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 – March 20, 1727) was the most famous English mathematician, physicist and astronomer throughout the world. He is considered the founder and ancestor of classical physics, since in one of his works - “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” - Newton outlined the three laws of mechanics and proved the law of universal gravitation, which helped classical mechanics move far forward.
Childhood
Isaac Newton was born on December 25 in the small town of Woolsthorpe, located in the county of Lincolnshire. His father was an average but very successful farmer who did not live to see the birth of his own son and died a couple of months before this event from a severe form of consumption.
It was in honor of the father that the child was named Isaac Newton. This was the decision of the mother, who mourned her deceased husband for a long time and hoped that her son would not repeat his tragic fate.
Despite the fact that Isaac was born at his due date, the boy was very sick and weak. According to some records, it was precisely because of this that they did not dare to baptize him, but when the child grew a little older and stronger, the baptism still took place.
There were two versions about the origin of Newton. Previously, bibliographers were sure that his ancestors were nobles who lived in England in those distant times.
However, the theory was refuted later when manuscripts were found in one of the local settlements, from which the following conclusion was drawn: Newton had absolutely no aristocratic roots; rather, on the contrary, he came from the poorest part of the peasants.
The manuscripts said that his ancestors worked for wealthy landowners and later, having accumulated enough money, bought a small plot of land, becoming yeomen (full landowners). Therefore, by the time Newton's father was born, the position of his ancestors was slightly better than before.
In the winter of 1646, Newton's mother, Anna Ayscough, marries a widower for the second time, and three more children are born. Since the stepfather communicates little with Isaac and practically does not notice him, after a month a similar attitude towards the child can already be discerned in his mother.
She also becomes cold towards her own son, which is why the already sullen and closed boy becomes even more alienated, not only in the family, but also with the classmates and friends around him.
In 1653, Isaac's stepfather dies, leaving his entire fortune to his newfound family and children. It would seem that now the mother should begin to devote much more time to the child, but this does not happen. Rather, on the contrary, now her husband’s entire household is in her hands, as well as children who require care. And despite the fact that part of the fortune still goes to Newton, he, as before, does not receive attention.
Youth
In 1655, Isaac Newton goes to Grantham School, located near his home. Since he has virtually no relationship with his mother during this period, he becomes close to the local pharmacist Clark and moves in with him. But he is not allowed to calmly study and tinker with various mechanisms in his free time (by the way, this was Isaac’s only passion). Six months later, his mother forcibly takes him from school, returns him to the estate and tries to transfer to him some of her own responsibilities for managing the household.
She believed that this way she could not only provide her son with a decent future, but also make her own life much easier. But the attempt was a failure - management was not interesting to the young man. On the estate, he only read, invented new mechanisms and tried to compose poems, showing with all his appearance that he was not going to interfere with the farm. Realizing that she won’t have to wait for help from her son, the mother allows him to continue his studies.
In 1661, having completed his studies at Grantham School, Newton entered Cambridge and successfully passed the entrance exams, after which he was enrolled in Trinity College as a “sizer” (a student who does not pay for his education, but earns it by providing services the institution itself or its wealthier students).
Quite little is known about Isaac’s university education, so it has been extremely difficult for scientists to reconstruct this period of his life. What is known is that the unstable political situation had a negative impact on the university: teachers were fired, student payments were delayed, and the educational process was partially absent.
Beginning of scientific activity
Until 1664, Newton, according to his own notes in his workbooks and personal diary, did not see any benefit or prospects in his university education. However, it was 1664 that became a turning point for him. First, Isaac compiles a list of problems of the surrounding world, consisting of 45 points (by the way, similar lists will appear more than once in the future on the pages of his manuscripts).
Then he meets a new mathematics teacher (and subsequently best friend) Isaac Barrow, thanks to whom he develops a special love for mathematical science. At the same time, he makes his first discovery - he creates a binomial expansion for an arbitrary rational exponent, with the help of which he proves the existence of an expansion of a function in an infinite series.
In 1686, Newton created the theory of universal gravitation, which later, thanks to Voltaire, acquired a certain mysterious and slightly humorous character. Isaac was on friendly terms with Voltaire and shared almost all his theories with him. One day they were sitting after lunch in the park under a tree, talking about the essence of the universe. And at this very moment, Newton suddenly admits to a friend that the theory of universal gravitation came to him at exactly the same moment - during rest.
“The afternoon weather was so warm and good that I definitely wanted to go out into the fresh air, under the apple trees. And at that moment, when I was sitting, completely immersed in my thoughts, a large apple fell from one of the branches. And I wondered why all the objects fall vertically downwards?.
Isaac Newton's further scientific work was more than just fruitful. He was in constant correspondence with many famous scientists, mathematicians, astronomers, biologists and physicists. He authored such works as “A New Theory of Light and Colors” (1672), “Motion of Bodies in Orbit” (1684), “Optics or a Treatise on Reflections, Refractions, Bendings and Colors of Light” (1704), “Enumeration of the Lines of the Third order" (1707), "Analysis by means of equations with an infinite number of terms" (1711), "Method of differences" (1711) and many others.
Isaac Newton's short biography is outlined in this article.
Isaac Newton short biography
Isaac Newton- English mathematician, astronomer, physicist, mechanic, who laid the foundations of classical mechanics. He explained the movement of celestial bodies - the planets around the Sun and the Moon around the Earth. His most famous discovery was the law of universal gravitation
Was born December 25, 1642 years in a farming family in the town of Woolsthorpe near Grantham. His father died before he was born. From the age of 12 he studied at Grantham School. At that time he lived in the house of the pharmacist Clark, which may have awakened in him a craving for chemical sciences
1661 entered Trinity College, Cambridge University as a subsizer. After graduating from college in 1665, Newton received a bachelor's degree. 1665–67, during the plague, was in his native village of Woolsthorpe; These years were the most productive in Newton's scientific work.
In 1665-1667, Newton developed ideas that led him to the creation of differential and integral calculus, the invention of a reflecting telescope (made by himself in 1668), and the discovery of the law of universal gravitation. Here he conducted experiments on the decomposition (dispersion) of light. It was then that Newton outlined a program for further scientific growth
In 1668 he successfully defended his master's degree and became a senior member of Trinity College.
In 1889 receives one of the departments at Cambridge University: the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics.
In 1671, Newton built his second reflecting telescope, larger and of better quality than the first. The demonstration of the telescope made a strong impression on his contemporaries, and soon after (in January 1672) Newton was elected a member of the Royal Society of London - the English Academy of Sciences.
Also in 1672, Newton presented his research on a new theory of light and colors to the Royal Society of London, which caused heated controversy with Robert Hooke. Newton had ideas about monochromatic light rays and the periodicity of their properties, substantiated by the finest experiments. In 1687, he published his grandiose work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (“Principles”).
In 1696, Newton was appointed Warden of the Mint by Royal Decree. His energetic reform is quickly restoring confidence in the UK monetary system. 1703 - Newton's election as president of the Royal Society, which he ruled for 20 years. 1703 - Queen Anne knighted Newton for scientific merits. In the last years of his life, he devoted a lot of time to theology and ancient and biblical history.
In many higher educational institutions you can see a portrait of Isaac Newton, a famous mathematician and physicist (this scientist also studied alchemy). The scientist's father was a farmer. Isaac was often sick, shunned by his peers, and was raised by his grandmother. The future scientist studied at Grantham School, and in 1661 he entered Holy Trinity College (now Trinity College) of the well-known Cambridge University. In 1665 Newton became a bachelor, and three years later a master. During his studies, Isaac conducted experiments and designed a reflecting telescope.
In 1687, Isaac published his work devoted to the mathematical principles of natural philosophy, in which the laws of dynamics and the fundamentals of the study of resistance of gases and liquids were described. For more than thirty years, Isaac was the head of the physics and mathematics department at Cambridge, and at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Queen Anne granted Newton a knighthood. For many decades, Isaac experienced serious financial difficulties, and only in 1695 did his financial situation improve after taking the vacancy of the caretaker of the Mint.
For more than two centuries, Isaac Newton has been considered one of the most famous scientists. During his life he managed to make significant contributions to many modern sciences. He formulated the most important laws of classical mechanics and explained the mechanism of movement of celestial bodies. In 1692, the scientist suffered from a mental disorder caused by a fire that destroyed a significant number of his manuscripts. After the illness subsided, Newton continued to study science, but with less intensity.
Newton lived to be more than eighty years old. In the final years of his life, Isaac devoted many hours to theology, as well as biblical history. The remains of the great scientist were buried in Westminster Abbey.
Achievement and personal life
Biography of Isaac Newton about the main thing
The name of Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is inscribed in golden letters in the history of world science; it was he who made the greatest discoveries in physics, astronomy, mechanics, mathematics - the formulation of the basic postulates of mechanics, the discovery of the phenomenon of universal gravity, the English scientist also laid the foundation for subsequent scientific developments in the field of optics and acoustics. Newton, in addition to physical experiments, was also an expert in alchemy and history. The scientist’s activities were often poorly appreciated by his contemporaries, but today it is clear to the naked eye that his scientific views significantly exceeded the level of medieval science.
Isaac was born in 1642 in the English village of Woolsthorpe (Lincolnshire) into the family of a poor farmer. The boy was quite frail and sickly, physically weak, was raised by his grandmother, and was very withdrawn and unsociable. At the age of 12, the boy entered school in Grantham, six years later, after graduating, he entered the University of Cambridge, where he was taught by I. Barrow himself, a famous scientist and mathematician.
In 1665, Newton received a bachelor's degree and until 1667 was in his native Woolsthorpe: it was during this period that the scientist was actively engaged in scientific developments - experiments on the decomposition of light, the invention of the reflecting telescope, the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, etc. In 1668, the scientist returned to his native university, received a master's degree there and, with the support of I. Barrow, headed the physics and mathematics department of his native university (until 1701).
Some time later, in 1672, the young inventor became a member of one of the world's largest scientific communities in London. In 1687, his most ambitious work was published entitled “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”, where the scientist generalized the scientific experience accumulated by previous scientists (Galileo Galilei, Rene Descartes, Christian Huygens, etc.), as well as independent scientific conclusions and created a unified system mechanics, which to this day is the foundation of physics as a science.
Also, I. Newton formulated the famous 3 postulates, axioms, which today are known as “Newton’s three laws”: the law of inertia, the basic law of dynamics, the law of equality in the interaction of two material bodies. “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy” played a huge role in the development of physics, gave impetus to the further study of mathematics, mechanics, optics. In 1689, Isaac Newton’s mother died, in 1692 there was a fire that destroyed a large number of the scientist’s scientific developments - these events became the cause of the great intellectual disorder of the inventor, during this period his scientific activity declined.
In 1695, Newton was invited to public service, became superintendent of the state Mint and supervised the minting of coins in the kingdom. For his services to the crown, the scientist was presented with the honorary title of Director of the Mint in 1699, and also became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. At the beginning of the 18th century, Isaac Newton was at the peak of his fame, headed the Royal Society of London, and in 1705 he was awarded a knighthood, that is, he received a title of nobility.
At the end of his life, the scientist retired from scientific activity and was in public service until 1725. The scientist’s health deteriorated every year: in the spring of 1727, in the town of Kensington, near London, the brilliant scientist Isaac Newton died in his sleep. After his death, the scientist was awarded great honors and was buried in Westminster Abbey next to the English kings and prominent political leaders of the state. Newton's contribution to the development of science remains invaluable to this day; his works are a fundamental basis for modern researchers.
His great discovery for children
Interesting facts and dates from life
> What did Isaac Newton discover?
Isaac Newton's discoveries– laws and physics from one of the greatest geniuses. Study the law of universal gravitation, the three laws of motion, gravity, the shape of the Earth.
Isaac Newton(1642-1727) is remembered by us as a philosopher, scientist and mathematician. He did a lot for his time and actively participated in the scientific revolution. Interestingly, his views, Newton's laws and physics would prevail for another 300 years after his death. In fact, we have before us the creator of classical physics.
Subsequently, the word “Newtonian” will be inserted into all statements related to his theories. Isaac Newton is considered one of the greatest geniuses and most influential scientists, whose work spanned many scientific fields. But what do we owe to him and what discoveries did he make?
Three laws of motion
Let's start with his famous work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (1687), which revealed the foundations of classical mechanics. We are talking about three laws of motion, derived from the laws of planetary motion put forward by Johannes Kepler.
The first law is inertia: an object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by a force that is unbalanced. A body in motion will continue to move at its original speed and in the same direction unless it encounters an unbalanced force.
Second: acceleration occurs when force affects mass. The greater the mass, the more force required.
Third: for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Universal gravity
Newton is to be thanked for the law of universal gravitation. He deduced that each point of mass attracts another by a force directed along a line intersecting both points (F = G frac(m_1 m_2)(r^2)).
These three postulates of gravity will help him measure the trajectories of comets, tides, equinoxes and other phenomena. His arguments crushed the last doubts regarding the heliocentric model and the scientific world accepted the fact that the Earth does not act as the universal center.
Everyone knows that Newton came to his conclusions about gravity thanks to the incident of an apple falling on his head. Many people think that this is just a comic retelling, and the scientist developed the formula gradually. But the entries in Newton’s diary and the retellings of his contemporaries speak in favor of the apple breakthrough.
Shape of the Earth
Isaac Newton believed that our planet Earth formed as an oblate spheroid. Later the guess would be confirmed, but in his time it was important information that helped transfer most of the scientific world from the Cartesian system to Newtonian mechanics.
In the mathematical field, he generalized the binomial theorem, studied power series, developed his own method for approximating the roots of a function, and divided most curved cubic planes into classes. He also shared his developments with Gottfried Leibniz.
His discoveries were breakthroughs in physics, mathematics and astronomy, helping to understand the structure of space using formulas.
Optics
In 1666, he delved deeper into optics. It all started with studying the properties of light, which he measured through a prism. In 1670-1672. studied the refraction of light, showing how a multi-colored spectrum is rearranged into a single white light using a lens and a second prism.
As a result, Newton realized that color is formed due to the interaction of objects that were originally colored. In addition, I noticed that the lens of any instrument suffers from light scattering (chromatic aberration). He managed to solve the problems using a telescope with a mirror. His invention is considered the first model of a reflecting telescope.
Besides…
He is also credited with formulating the empirical law of cooling and studying the speed of sound. From his suggestion, the term “Newtonian fluid” appeared - a description of any fluid where viscous stresses are linearly proportional to the rate of its transformation.
Newton devoted a large amount of time to researching not only scientific postulates, but also biblical chronology and introduced himself into alchemy. However, many works appeared only after the death of the scientist. So Isaac Newton is remembered not only as a talented physicist, but also as a philosopher.
What do we owe to Isaac Newton? His ideas were breakthrough not only for that time, but also served as starting points for all subsequent scientists. It prepared fertile ground for new discoveries and inspired exploration of this world. It is not surprising that Isaac Newton had followers who developed his ideas and theories. If you are interested in learning more, the site has a biography of Isaac Newton, which presents the date of birth and death (according to the new and old style), the most important discoveries, as well as interesting facts about the greatest physicist.
