Universal learning activities. Knowledge, skills and abilities

ZUN is an abbreviation. Stands for “Knowledge - Ability - Skill”.

What are the stages a person needs to go through to learn a new skill:

First, Interest in a new activity appears (such interest may appear when observing someone's skill or ability).
The second level is the belief that any action can become a human action. And such a result can be achieved.
The third level is obtaining Knowledge. At this stage, a person has an idea of how this or that action is done. An important factor is the ability to reproduce all significant details.
The fourth level is the emergence of Primary skill. This means that a person knows how to do something confidently. However, there is a limit to the primary skill. It can only be reproduced in a situation familiar to a person, with given conditions. Also, a person must monitor his actions in order to perform everything accurately.
Level 5 - True Skill. This is when a person does something confidently in a wide range of situations.
The sixth level is the appearance of the Skill. These are actions that a person performs without conscious control, without thinking, completely automatically.
The seventh level is Habit. These are actions that are performed by themselves without the will of a person. Such actions are performed naturally, by themselves, completely automatically.
The eighth level is Need. These are actions that a person is so accustomed to that discomfort arises if they are not done.

The product of our cognitive activity is knowledge. They represent the essence reflected by human consciousness and are remembered in the form of judgments, specific theories or concepts.

Knowledge, skills and abilities - interconnection

What is knowledge?

Knowledge determines our abilities and skills; they represent the basis of a person’s moral qualities, form his worldview and views on the world. The process of formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills, and abilities is fundamental in the works of many scientists and psychologists, but the concept of “knowledge” is defined differently among them. For some, it is a product of cognition, for others, it is a reflection and ordering of reality or a way of consciously reproducing a perceived object.

Representatives of the animal world also have elementary knowledge; it helps them in their life activities and the implementation of instinctive acts.

Knowledge acquisition is the result

The assimilation of knowledge largely depends on the chosen path; the completeness of the student’s mental development depends on it. Knowledge itself cannot provide a high level of intellectual development, but without it this process becomes unthinkable. The formation of moral views, strong-willed character traits, beliefs and interests occurs under the influence of knowledge, therefore they are an important and necessary element in the process of developing human abilities.

What types of knowledge are there?

The everyday type of knowledge is based on worldly wisdom and common sense. This is the basis of human behavior in everyday life; it is formed as a result of a person’s contact with the surrounding reality and the external aspects of existence.
Artistic is a specific way of assimilating reality through aesthetic perception.
Scientific knowledge is a systematic source of information based on theoretical or experimental forms of reflection of the world. Scientific knowledge may contradict everyday knowledge due to the limitations and one-sidedness of the latter. Along with scientific knowledge, there is also pre-scientific knowledge that preceded it.

The child receives his first knowledge in infancy

Knowledge acquisition and its levels

The assimilation of knowledge is based on the active mental activity of students. The whole process is controlled by the teacher and consists of several stages of assimilation.

At the first stage - understanding, the perception of an object occurs, that is, its isolation from the general environment and the determination of its distinctive qualities. The student has no experience in this type of activity. And his understanding informs about his ability to learn and perceive new information.
The second stage - recognition, is associated with the comprehension of the received data, the understanding of its connections with other subjects. The process is accompanied by the execution of each operation, using hints, a description of the action, or hints.
The third level – reproduction, is characterized by active independent reproduction of previously understood and discussed information; it is actively used in typical situations.
The next level of the process of acquiring knowledge and developing skills and abilities is application. At this stage, the student includes the perceived knowledge into the structure of previous experience and is able to apply the acquired set of skills in atypical situations.
The final fifth level of assimilation is creative. At this stage, the scope of activity for the student becomes known and understandable. Unforeseen situations arise in which he is able to create new rules or algorithms for resolving the difficulties that have arisen. The learner's actions are considered productive and creative.

The formation of knowledge continues almost throughout life.

Classification of levels of knowledge formation allows you to qualitatively assess the student’s mastery of the material.

Student development occurs starting from the first level. It is clear that if the student’s level of knowledge is characterized by the initial stage, then their role and value is small, however, if the student applies the information received in unfamiliar situations, then we can talk about a significant step towards mental development.

Thus, the assimilation and formation of skills is realized through comprehension and repetition of information, understanding and application in familiar or new conditions or areas of life.

What are skills and abilities, what are the stages of their formation?

There are still heated debates among scientists about what is higher in the hierarchical scheme of the formation of new knowledge, skills and abilities that characterize mental development. Some emphasize the importance of skills, others convince us of the value of skills.

How skills are formed - diagram

A skill is the highest level of formation of an action; it is performed automatically, without awareness of the intermediate stages.

Skill is expressed in the ability to act, performed consciously, without reaching the highest degree of formation. When a student learns to perform any purposeful action, at the initial stage he consciously performs all intermediate steps, while each stage is recorded in his consciousness. The whole process is unfolded and realized, so skills are first formed. As you work on yourself and systematically train, this skill improves, the time required to complete the process is reduced, and some intermediate stages are performed automatically, unconsciously. At this stage, we can talk about the formation of skills in performing an action.

Formation of skills in working with scissors

As can be seen from the above, a skill develops into a skill over time, but in some cases, when the action is extremely difficult, it may never develop into it. A schoolchild, at the initial stage of learning to read, has difficulty combining letters into words. This process of assimilation takes a lot of time and takes a lot of effort. When reading a book, many of us control only its semantic content; we read letters and words automatically. As a result of long-term training and exercises, the ability to read has been brought to the level of skill.

Formation of skills and abilities is a long process and takes a lot of time. As a rule, this will take more than one year, and the improvement of skills and abilities occurs throughout life.

Skill Development Theory

Determining the level of students' mastery of an action occurs through the following classification:

Zero level – the student does not master this action at all, lack of skill;
The first level - he is familiar with the nature of the action; sufficient help from the teacher is required to perform it;
The second level - the student performs the action independently according to a model or template, imitates the actions of colleagues or a teacher;
The third level - he independently performs the action, every step is realized;
The fourth level – the student performs the action automatically, the formation of skills has occurred successfully.

Conditions for the formation and application of knowledge, skills and abilities

One of the stages of assimilation is the application of knowledge, skills and abilities. The nature and specificity of the educational subject determines the type of pedagogical organization of this process. It can be implemented through laboratory work, practical exercises, and solving educational and research problems. The value of applying skills and abilities is great. The student’s motivation increases, knowledge becomes solid and meaningful. Depending on the uniqueness of the object being studied, various methods of their application are used. Subjects such as geography, chemistry, physics involve the formation of skills using observation, measurement, problem solving and recording all data obtained in special forms.

Development of skills in labor lessons

The implementation of skills in the study of humanitarian subjects occurs through the application of spelling rules, explanations, and recognition of a specific situation where this application is appropriate.

The conditions for the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities are generalization, specification and ensuring the sequence of operations. Working through these tasks allows you to avoid the formalism of knowledge, since the basis for solving problems is not only memory, but also analysis.

The process of forming new knowledge is inextricably linked with the following conditions:

Group 1 – conditions for motivating students’ actions;
Group 2 – conditions for ensuring the correct execution of actions;
Group 3 – conditions for practicing, nurturing the desired properties;
Group 4 – conditions for transformation and step-by-step development of the action.

General educational skills and abilities are those skills and abilities that are formed in the process of learning many subjects, and not just one specific one. This issue should be given a lot of attention, but many teachers underestimate the importance of this task. They believe that during the learning process, students acquire all the necessary skills on their own. This is not true. The processing and transformation of the information received by the student can be carried out in one way or another, using various methods and methods. Often the child’s way of working differs from the teacher’s standard. Control of this process by the teacher is not always carried out, since he usually records only the final result (whether the problem is solved or not, whether the answer is meaningful or uninformative, whether the analysis is deep or superficial, whether the conditions are met or not).

Training and education - differences

The child spontaneously develops some skills and techniques that turn out to be irrational or erroneous. The subsequent development of the child becomes unthinkable, the educational process is significantly slowed down, and the comprehension of new knowledge and its automation becomes difficult.

Methods

The correct methods of developing knowledge, skills and abilities should be given great importance in the learning process. Two main points can be noted. This is setting goals and organizing activities.

In cases where the teacher discovers that a student lacks a specific skill, it is important to realize whether the goal was set for the student and whether he realized it. Only selected students with a high level of intellectual development can independently determine and realize the value of the educational process. Lack of purpose is considered the most common drawback in organizing educational work. Initially, the teacher can indicate one or another goal that the student should strive for when solving the problem. Over time, each student acquires the habit of setting goals and motives independently.

The motivation of each student is individual, so the teacher should focus on a wide range of motives. They can be social, aimed at achieving success, avoiding punishment, and others.

What is motivation - definition

Organization of activities consists of compiling a list of basic processes associated with knowledge, skills and abilities. This list should include the most important issues, without which further progress is impossible. Next, you need to develop an algorithm for solving the problem or a sample, using which the student independently or under the guidance of a teacher can develop his own system of rules. By comparing the task with the received sample, he learns to overcome the difficulties and difficulties encountered along the educational path. Deepening and consolidation of knowledge occurs in the case of generalization, analysis and comparison of work completed by students in the class.

School education is the beginning of the comprehensive formation of knowledge, skills and abilities

The learning process is related to the ability of students to distinguish between the main and the secondary. To do this, various tasks are offered in which you need to highlight the most significant part of the text or words of secondary importance.

When training necessary to develop a skill, it is important to ensure its versatility and normal intensity. Over-processing one skill can prevent it from being used correctly and integrated into a holistic learning system. There are often cases when a student who has perfectly mastered a certain rule makes mistakes in dictation.

An integrated approach and pedagogical work are conditions that guarantee the full education of the younger generation.

Similar materials

2. Not so much knowledge as ability (SUD + SEN + ZUN + SDP).

3. Development of self-determination, individual responsibility for one’s actions (SRM).

Conceptual provisions

Conformity with nature: development occurs according to a predetermined, genetically determined program, goes ahead of learning and determines it; spontaneity of free development of natural inclinations; “based on the child”, creating the most favorable conditions for identifying the child’s natural abilities.

Free education and training. Everything without coercion, without violence: spiritual and physical.

Freedom as a means of education.

Parenting and learning adapt to the child, not the child to them.

During the learning process, the child himself goes through and comprehends all stages of development.
humanity. Therefore, there is no need to truncate “childhood” or intellectualize development ahead of time.

Education is inseparable from education: all education is at the same time the education of certain personality qualities.

Ecology of health, cult of health.

The cult of creativity, creative personality, development of individuality through art.

Imitation as a means of learning.

The combination of European and Eastern cultures: the teachings of Christ and the idea of personality as a combination of the physical body and the etheric, astral.

Unity of development of mind, heart and hand.

School for everyone.

The united life of teachers and students.

Content Features

A harmonious combination of intellectual, aesthetic and practical-labor aspects of education.

Widespread additional education (museums, theater, etc.).

Interdisciplinary connections.

Required art subjects: painting, eurythmy (the art of expressive movements) and depiction of forms (complex patterns, graphics), music (playing the flute).

A large role is given to labor education. Features of the content by grade - training “by era”: Preschool period: walk, talk; think;

I: prototypes and tales; from image to letter; singing, eurythmy; knitting;

II: miracles and legends; letter; arithmetic; flute, drawing, manual labor;

III: Creation and the Old Testament; sheet music, drawing shapes, crocheting;

IV: the gap between the general and the particular; fractions; European myths; ornament, canon, embroidery;

V: harmony and antiquity, Greece; decimals, orchestra, woodworking;

VI: physics, interest, geometry, planing;

VII: space and the Renaissance; algebra, poetry, sewing;

VIII: revolutions, XIX century; economics, chemistry, composers, working with metal;

IX: ecology, technological progress and morality, art history, carpentry; X: politics, history, society, physics, drama, ceramics;

XI: society, literature, music, sculpture, bookbinding;

XII: cultural history, improvisation in all areas.

Features of the technique

Pedagogy of relationships, not demands.

Immersion method, “epoch-making” technique.

Education without textbooks, without rigid programs (didactic materials, additional literature).

Individualization (taking into account the advancement of the individual in development).

There is no division between classroom and extracurricular work.

The student is led to discover the personal significance of knowledge and learning and, on this motivational basis, masters the content of subjects (areas).

Collective cognitive creativity in the classroom.

Teaching independence and self-control.

Lots of play (learning should be fun).

Denial of the mark.

Student position.

The child is at the center of the pedagogical system.

The right to choose everything: from the form of the lesson to its plan.

The child's right to make mistakes.

Freedom of choice.

The right to free creative exploration.

Relationships of responsible dependence with the team.
Teacher's position.

The teacher's activities are a priority; the teacher leads children for 8 years in all subjects.

The teacher is a senior comrade.

With children to the subject, not with the subject to the children.

Don’t give knowledge, but let children live in the classroom; joint spiritual life of student and teacher.

Waiting for the maturation of the forces inherent in nature.

Do not tell your child “no” or “no”.

Do not make comments (lack of highlighting weak and strong).

Don't give bad grades.

Don't leave it for a second year.

Accept the child for who he is (all children are talented).

R. Steiner's position on religious education: free Christian education, which is outside the general routine of the school, is conducted as private education within its framework.

Very important aspects of Waldorf pedagogy are attention to children’s health and teacher-parent self-government.

Notes, modern analogues

The Center for Waldorf Pedagogy has been created and operates in Russia.

The Moscow Free Waldorf School (scientific director A.A. Pinsky) operates without the usual director, head teacher, and other usual administrative attributes of a mass school. All affairs are managed by an elected board of children, teachers and parents.

Work is not divided into classroom and extracurricular. These species are very closely intertwined. After the main lesson, painting, music, handicrafts, English and German are taught (from the first grade simultaneously), as well as disciplines specific to the Waldorf school - eurythmy (the art of expressive movements) and the depiction of forms - drawing complex patterns, graphics.

The program provides for an agricultural cycle and the construction of a wooden house (at the level of a large model). This is in elementary school. And in the older ones - working with metal. All children also master handicrafts - learn to sew and embroider.

School L.N. Tolstoy. L.N. Tolstoy put into practice the idea of “free education” in the Yasnaya Polyana school for peasant children he organized. If we imagine the “school of Leo Tolstoy” as a technology, then we can note its maximalist concept:

Education, as the deliberate formation of people according to known models, is unfruitful, illegal, and impossible;

Education spoils, not corrects people;

The more spoiled a child is, the less he needs to be raised, the more freedom he needs.

In the last period of L.N.’s life. Tolstoy moved to the other extreme - pedagogical moralism with a religious overtone.

L.N. Tolstoy brought his concept to the level of methodology, writing a number of textbooks for elementary schools.

Currently, in a number of schools in Russia (Yasnaya Polyana, Tomsk) attempts are being made to restore the domestic technology of free education based on the ideas of Leo Tolstoy.

Technology of free labor (S. Frenet)

Frene Celestin (1896-1966) - the most prominent French teacher and thinker, a rural teacher from the town of Vanais. Having joined the movement for new education at the beginning of the 20th century, he created and until the end of his life led an experimental rural elementary school, where he implemented his alternative technology.

Classification parameters of technology

By level of application: general pedagogical. According to the main development factor: biogenic + sociogenic. According to the concept of assimilation: associative-reflex. By orientation to personal structures: SUD + ZUN + SDP. By the nature of the content: educational + educational, secular, humanistic, general education.

By type of cognitive activity management: small group system.

By organizational form: alternative.

According to the predominant method: problem-based, self-development.

In the direction of modernization: alternative.

Target orientations

■ Comprehensive education.

Conceptual provisions

Learning is a natural process, it occurs naturally, in accordance with development; The age characteristics and diversity of children’s abilities are taken into account.

Relationships between children and value orientations in their minds are a priority in the educational process.

Socially useful work at all stages of education.

Great attention to school self-government.

Children's emotional and intellectual activity is purposefully stimulated.

New material means of teaching and education are used (printing, handwritten teaching aids).

Features of the organization

At Frenet school:

There is no learning, but problem solving, testing, experimenting, analysis, comparison;

There is no homework, but questions are constantly asked - at home, on the street, at school;

There are no lessons from bell to bell;

There are no marks, but personal progress is noted - through peer assessment
children and teachers;

There are no mistakes - there are misunderstandings, which, having sorted them out together with everyone, can be prevented;

There are no programs, but there are individual and group plans;

There is no traditional teacher, but they are taught by the very forms of organizing a common task, designed by the teacher together with the children;

The teacher does not educate or develop anyone, but participates in solving common problems;

There are no rules, but the class is ruled by the norms of community life accepted by the children themselves;

There is no edifying discipline, but the very sense of personal and collective security and joint movement disciplines;

There is no class in the general sense, but there is a community of children and adults.

Features of the technique

Project method. The group builds collective projects, which are discussed, accepted, and hung on the walls (these can be any, even the most fantastic plans). The teacher intervenes only when projects violate the freedom of others. In the process of completing the project, each student can act in relation to the other as a teacher.

The classroom is a system open to communication and participation of others: children invite people to join them, go to others themselves, correspond, and travel. Cooperation and cooperation are encouraged, but not competition and competition.

Self management. A cooperative is created at the school, headed by an elected council that directs the self-education of students. The summing up procedure is based on childish self-government and self-organization and occurs regularly: for the younger ones every day, for the older ones - less often, as needed.

Cult of information. It is important to have knowledge, but it is even more important to know where and how to get it. Information is available in books, audiovisual and computer media; preference is given to personal communication with the owner of the information.

The self-expression of a child’s personality is also associated with information: children write free texts, essays, make typographical typeset themselves, make cliches, and publish books.

Written language and reading skills are developed on the basis of children's free texts, which each child writes and reads publicly. The class selects the “text of the day”, records it, and everyone rewrites this text, while everyone can make their own additions and “editorial” changes.

Textbooks at school have been replaced by special cards containing a piece of information, a specific task or test questions. The student chooses a specific set of cards for himself (individual training program). Frenet created a prototype of programmed learning - a training tape, to which cards with information, an exercise, a question or task, and a control task were attached sequentially. Each person, with the help of the teacher, draws up an individual weekly plan, which reflects all types of his work.

Cult of labor. The school creates a school cooperative, of which all students are members. The daily routine includes work in workshops, gardens, and barnyards. The cooperative is governed by an elected council, and a general meeting is held once a week. Much attention is paid to transparency. Everyone fills out four columns of a common newspaper sheet: “I did,” “I would like,” “I praise,” “I criticize.”

Cult of health. Caring for a child’s health includes activities related to movement, physical labor, a vegetarian diet, and natural medicine techniques; The highest level here is the harmony of relations with nature.

Note. S. Frenet addressed his practical recommendations to a small rural primary school. However, the ideas and pathos of the fight against routine and rigidity of the traditional education system make Frenet technology relevant for all types of educational institutions.

Currently, thousands of schools operate “according to Fresnais” in France. An Association of Frenet Teachers has been organized in Russia, disseminating his ideas.

Self-development technology (M. Montessori)

Montessori Maria (1870-1952) - Italian teacher, implemented the ideas of free education and early development in kindergarten and primary school.

The technology of self-development was created as an alternative to drill and dogmatism in training, widespread at the end of the 19th century. M. Montessori perceived the child as a being capable of independent development, and determined that the main task of the school was to supply “food” for the natural process of self-development, to create an environment that would contribute to it.

Classification parameters

By level of application: general pedagogical.

On a philosophical basis: anthroposophical.

According to the main development factor: biogenic + psychogenic.

According to the concept of assimilation: associative-reflex + gestalt.

By orientation to personal structures: SUM + SUD + SDP.

By the nature of the content: educational + training, secular, general education, humanistic.

By type of cognitive activity management: small group system + “consultant” + “tutor”.

By organizational forms: alternative, club, individual + group.

According to the approach to the child: anthropocentric.

According to the predominant method: gaming + creative.

In the direction of modernization: nature-conforming.

Target orientations

■Comprehensive development.

■Developing independence.

■Connection in the child’s mind of the objective world and mental activity.

Conceptual provisions

Learning should take place completely naturally in accordance with development - the child develops himself.

A child’s appeal to the teacher “Help me do this myself” is the motto of Montessori pedagogy.

The whole life of a child - from birth to civil maturity - is the development of his independence and independence.

Taking into account sensitivity and spontaneity of development.

Unity of individual and social development.

There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the feelings.

Abandoning the mission to educate children; instead of training, provide them with conditions for independent development and mastery of human culture.

The child’s thinking must go through all the necessary stages: from the objective-active to the visual-figurative, and only after that the abstract level is reached.

The child’s consciousness is “absorbent”, therefore the priority of didactics is to organize the environment for such “absorption”.

Content Features

The idea of an educational (cultural, developmental, pedagogical) environment. The forces of development are inherent in the child, but they may not be realized if there is no prepared environment. When creating it, first of all, sensitivity is taken into account - the highest susceptibility to certain external phenomena.

Montessori material is part of the pedagogical preparatory environment, which encourages the child to demonstrate the possibilities of his own development through amateur activities that correspond to his individuality and meets the child’s desire for movement.

Montessori materials, according to Vygotsky, are psychological tools, tools for indirect perception of the world. Taking an object from the shelf, the child concentrates on a specific goal, meditates, looks inside himself; By manipulating it, he quietly acquires skills.

Until the age of 5, a child is a builder of himself out of anything. He “refines”, according to Montessori, all his abilities - vision, hearing, diction, dexterity... The educational environment for this period provides material for practical skills, the development of motor and sensory skills, hands, eyes, speech. Some of it comes from everyday household items, different in size, shape, color, smell, weight, temperature, taste...

After 5 years, consciousness develops, the child turns into a researcher, begins to try everything, take it apart, and ask about everything. Here you can familiarize your child with a huge number of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world (didactic materials are bright and visual). There are also mathematical materials here: number bars with number plates, numbers made of paper with a rough surface, circles, geometric figures, number material made of beads, etc.

The transition to text study (as self-development) occurs in a child by the age of 8. By this time, the pedagogical environment includes letters of the alphabet, letters made of rough paper, writing tools, texts, and a library.

The speech of an adult as a constructive material of the pedagogical environment contains stories, conversations, conversations, and games. Adults support self-expression and speech development by listening to the child and answering questions.

During the school period, the pedagogical environment is the entire system: from the material base to the psychological way of life of the team. Literary and artistic creativity and music playing are used. The place of Montessori materials is replaced by workshops, a stage, an easel, a sewing machine, and baths with clay and plasticine.

0-3 years: object-sensory orientation;

3-6 years: sensitivity to speech, language acquisition, visual-figurative thinking;

6-9 years: mastering abstract actions;

9-12 years: completion of the first, primary school concentration;

12-18 years old: gymnasium and senior level.

Features of the methodology and organization

In a Montessori kindergarten, toys are not the main element of the environment; they are replaced by a variety of materials and objects such as cubes, plates, beads, and strings.

The main task here is skill training: the development of fine motor skills of the hand and tactile memory. As M. Montessori technology researcher E. Hiltunen points out, play is not the main activity of a preschooler, but “free work” - independent activity with objects.

School period. There are no uniform training programs; everyone follows a unique path of development given by nature and God.

There are no lessons at school. The day begins with a general circle. Teachers sometimes call this circle reflective, because it is here that the first attempts to comprehend reality take place, to convey sensations or observations through language, and through a description of the event and its analysis to come to the formulation of a question and approach the problem.

After the circle, everyone goes off to work freely. Everyone chooses for himself what he will do - mathematics, Russian, history, astronomy, literature, conduct chemical or physical experiments. Someone is learning to write letters, and someone is preparing a report in the library. When a piece of work is completely finished, the children show it to the teacher. The result is being discussed.

Children do not know what a mark is, but they definitely receive an assessment of their work, most often in the form of approval from adults or other children. The main thing here is how the child evaluates himself.

No one gives the children any assignments, no one explains a new topic, no one asks them at the board. Free work is based on absolute trust in the child, on faith in his desire to understand the world around him, given by nature, on the wise patience of adults waiting for independent discoveries to be made.

In the middle of the day there is another common lesson, which is a little longer for older children. This is immersion in the subject. Children of the same year of school gather together for 15-20 minutes. Teachers call this circle didactic. Here, knowledge on a particular subject is usually brought into the system, concepts are clarified, terminology is introduced, new didactic material is given, reports and messages are listened to and discussed.

The structure of any didactic material fully corresponds to the internal logic of the formation of a certain concept. The arrangement of the material in the environment also reflects a certain logic of its gradual development, recorded in textbooks specially developed by teachers. The child has several such notebooks in three integrated subjects: native language, mathematics and cosmic education (Montessori term). By filling out the sheets one after another, the student, as it were, completes the logic of studying the subject, transforms the material into the abstract, clarifies and systematizes his knowledge.

Position of the teacher: researcher, observer, organizer of the educational environment; respects the right of children to be different from adults and from each other, the right to their individuality.

The child’s position: “Help me do this myself.”

Note. M. Montessori technology is rich in private ideas that are used today in many other local technologies and private methods. An example of such use is the technique of E.N. Potapova “Optimization of teaching writing to 6-7 year old children.” It uses M. Montessori letter stencils and includes three stages:

1) training the small muscles of the hands by creatively drawing arbitrary figures using an engineering ruler and then shading them from left to right, top to bottom and bottom to top (in accordance with the elements of Russian writing, in contrast, for example, to Arabic);

2) remembering the spelling of a letter not only with the help of its visual perception, but also by including tactile memory, repeatedly (per lesson) feeling the letter with the sensitive pad of the index finger (the letter is cut out of thin sandpaper and pasted on cardboard);

3) repeated writing of letters, first through a letter stencil (the letters are embossed through a copper plate), and then without it.

Thanks to the technique of E.N. Potapova’s children learn to write calligraphically, their spelling vigilance increases and 20-30 hours of teaching time are saved.

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Today, society and the state are putting forward ever new demands for learning outcomes at school. In the first generation standards, the purpose of education was the direct transfer of knowledge from the teacher to students, and the result, showing the results of learning, was the mastery of a system of knowledge, skills, and abilities. In the second generation standards, the concept of “ZUNs” is no longer used. The purpose of learning also changes. Now schools must graduate people who have not only mastered a set of certain knowledge and skills, but also know how to acquire them on their own. It is understood that graduates must possess certain universal learning activities (ULAs).

The concept of universal learning activities

Universal learning activities- this is a set of methods of various actions that contribute to the active self-development of the student, helping to independently master new knowledge, master social experience, and form a social identity. What is UUD according to the Federal State Educational Standard, in simple words? These are actions that help “teach a person to learn.” By versatility we mean:

Meta-subject, character. The concept of UUD does not refer to any one academic subject.
Forms the psychological abilities of students
They are at the heart of any student’s activity.

Universal educational activities perform the following functions:

They create conditions for the comprehensive development of the individual based on readiness for lifelong education.
Contribute to the successful formation of skills, competencies, and the acquisition of knowledge in various subject areas.
Provide the student with the opportunity to independently carry out learning activities, goal setting, control and evaluation of the learning process and results.

Universal educational activities include the following types:

personal
regulatory
educational
communicative

Personal universal learning activities

Personal UUD– these are actions that ensure the determination of the value and semantic orientation of students. They also help a person determine his place and role in society and establish successful interpersonal relationships.

There are several types of actions in educational activities:

self-determination in different areas: professional, personal;
meaning formation: awareness of the meaning and motive of learning, the connection between them;
Moral assessment of the material being learned, the ability to make personal moral choices based on social values.

To form personal UUD, it is proposed to use the following methodological techniques and tasks:

Group projects. Students jointly choose an interesting and relevant topic and distribute roles within the group. Everyone contributes to the implementation of the project.
Maintaining a portfolio. A diary of individual achievements helps create a situation of success, thereby increasing self-esteem and establishing self-confidence. The portfolio encourages the desire for self-improvement and the formation of positive personality characteristics.
Involvement of local history material for academic and extracurricular activities
Creative tasks

Characteristics of regulatory universal educational actions

Regulatory universal educational actions are actions that ensure the organization and correction of educational activities. This group includes:

Goal setting: determination of the goal and educational task;
Planning: establishing a sequence of actions in accordance with the established goal and taking into account the expected result;
Forecasting: the ability to predict the result and its characteristics;
Correction: the ability to make changes to the plan in case of discrepancy with the standard;
Grade: determination and awareness of what has been learned and still to be learned; assessment of what has been learned;
Self-regulation: the ability to overcome obstacles and conflicts;

Several methodological techniques are proposed for the formation of regulatory control systems. First of all, the student must establish and understand the purpose of studying a topic. Without this, successful mastery of the material is impossible. To formulate lesson goals, students may be given the following table at the beginning of the lesson:

The last column can also be filled in at the end of the lesson, then its name should be changed: “What new and interesting things did I learn in the lesson?” Variations are possible in accordance with the topic of the lesson. For example, at the beginning of a history lesson on the topic “Religion of the Ancient Greeks,” there might be work with the following table:

To create a planning UUD, it is advisable to use the following techniques:

Planning
Discussion of a plan for solving a learning problem
Working with a deliberately changed (deformed teacher) plan, its adjustment

Characteristics of cognitive universal educational actions

Cognitive UUD– these are general educational activities that include:

Independent setting of a cognitive goal
Searching and structuring the necessary information using various means
Semantic reading
Modeling

In a number of cognitive UUDs there is a group logical universal actions. This:

Creating hypotheses and testing them
Establishing cause-and-effect relationships
Definition of logical reasoning
Carrying out classifications and comparisons

The development of cognitive learning tools is facilitated by the following techniques and methods: tasks for finding correspondences, drawing up a cluster, a logical chain, developing test questions and answers to them, working with historical documents.

Communicative universal learning activities

Communicative UUD name actions that ensure social competence and contribute to the acquisition of dialogue building skills; allowing integration into the social environment. These include:

Finding a successful way out of conflicts
Ability to formulate questions correctly
Ability to express thoughts fully and accurately
Control and correction of partner’s behavior in the group

To develop communicative UUDs, it is proposed to use such techniques:

Preparation of clarifying questions or questions for the speaker
Expressing judgments
Giving presentations or messages to an audience
Continuation and development of a classmate's judgment

Children really like a technique called “hot chair”. It is suitable for consolidating the material covered. Two people come to the board. One of them sits on a chair, called a “hot” chair, facing the class. He shouldn't see the board. The second student writes a term or date on the board. The class must explain the meaning to the person sitting, and he, in turn, must name the concept itself.

Such a simple technique as telling a story based on an illustration also helps develop communicative skills. When composing it, the student uses visual support, evoking passive vocabulary. In addition, illustrations can enliven the story itself, interest children, and encourage them to study the material.

A prominent place among the means that form communicative educational activities is occupied by educational discussion. This is what they call an exchange of opinions about a certain problem. Discussion contributes to the acquisition of new knowledge and the development of the ability to defend one’s opinion. There are many forms: forum, “court”, debate, symposium, “round table”, brainstorming, “aquarium” technique, “expert group meeting”.

Criteria for the formation of UUD

To determine the degree of development of the UUD, the following main criteria are used:

Regulatory Compliance
Compliance of the results of mastering UUD with the requirements prescribed in advance
Awareness, completeness and reasonableness of actions
Criticality of actions

By promoting the formation and development of educational learning, the teacher helps students become active participants in the educational process. Having mastered universal learning activities, the student will not get lost in the incessant flow of information and will acquire a very important skill - “the ability to learn.”

Processing of sensory data in consciousness leads to the formation of ideas and concepts. It is in these two forms that knowledge is stored in memory. The main purpose of knowledge is to organize and regulate practical activities.

Knowledge is a theoretically generalized socio-historical experience, the result of a person’s mastery of reality and its knowledge.

Knowledge and action are closely intertwined. Actions with objects simultaneously provide knowledge about their properties and the possibility of using these objects. When encountering unfamiliar objects, we strive first of all to gain knowledge of how to handle them and how to use them. If we are dealing with a new technical device, then first of all we get acquainted with the instructions for its use. Based on instructions, movements are stored in the form of motor representations. However, movements are usually not enough to properly handle the object. Certain theoretical knowledge is required about some properties of the device, about the patterns and features of the phenomena associated with it. This knowledge can be acquired from specialized literature and used when working with the device.

Knowledge raises an activity to a higher level of awareness and increases a person’s confidence in the correctness of its implementation. Performing an activity is impossible without knowledge.

In addition to knowledge, necessary components of activity are skills and abilities. The relationship between these components is explained ambiguously by psychologists: some researchers believe that skills precede skills, others believe that skills arise before skills.

In addition, the concept of skill is interpreted ambiguously. Thus, skill is sometimes reduced to knowledge of a specific task and an understanding of the sequence of its implementation. However, this is not yet a skill, but only a prerequisite for its occurrence. Yes, both a first-grader and a high school student can read, but these are qualitatively different skills in their psychological structure. Therefore, one should distinguish between elementary skills that immediately follow knowledge and the first experience of action, and skills that manifest themselves as mastery in performing activities that arise after the development of a skill. Elementary skills are actions that arise on the basis of knowledge as a result of imitation of actions or independent trial and error in handling a subject. They can arise on the basis of imitation, from random knowledge. Skill - mastery arises on the basis of already developed skills and a wide range of knowledge. Thus, a necessary internal condition for skill is a certain dexterity in performing those actions that make up a given activity.

So, skill is a person’s readiness to successfully perform a certain activity based on knowledge and skills. Skills represent consciously controlled parts of an activity, at least in the main intermediate points and the final goal.

The existence of a large number of activities determines the existence of a corresponding number of skills. These skills have both common features (what is necessary for any type of activity: the ability to be attentive, plan and control activities, etc.), and distinct features, determined by the content of a particular type of activity.

Since an activity consists of various actions, the ability to perform it consists of a number of individual skills. The more complex the activity, the more advanced the mechanisms and devices that need to be controlled, the greater the skill a person should have.

A skill is an action formed through repetition and is characterized by a high degree of comprehension and the absence of element-by-element conscious regulation and control.

Skills are components of human conscious activity that are performed completely automatically. If by action we understand a part of an activity that has a clearly defined conscious goal, then a skill can also be called an automated component of an action.

As a result of repeated execution of the same movements, a person has the opportunity to perform a certain action as a single purposeful act, without setting himself a special goal, consciously selecting ways to perform it, and not specifically focusing on performing individual operations.

Due to the fact that some actions are consolidated in the form of skills and move into the plan of automated acts, a person’s conscious activity is freed from the need to regulate relatively elementary acts, and is directed towards performing complex tasks.

When automating actions and operations of converting them into skills, a number of transformations occur in the structure of activity. Firstly, automated actions and operations merge into a single holistic act called skill (for example, a complex system of movements of a person who writes a text, performs a sports exercise, performs a surgical operation, produces a part of an object, gives a lecture, etc.). At the same time, unnecessary, unnecessary movements disappear, and the number of erroneous ones drops sharply.

Secondly, control over an action or operation, when automated, shifts from the process to the final result, and external, sensory control is replaced by internal, proprioceptive control. The speed of action and operation increases sharply, becoming optimal or maximum. All this happens as a result of exercise and training.

The physiological basis for the automation of activity components, which are initially presented in its structure in the form of actions and operations and then turn into skills, is, as shown by N.A. Bernstein, the transition of control of activity or its individual components to the subconscious level of regulation and bringing them to automatism.

Since skills are included in the structure of actions and various activities in large numbers, they interact with each other, forming complex systems of skills. The nature of their interaction can be different: from coordination to opposition, from complete fusion to mutually negative inhibitory influence - interference. Coordination of skills occurs when: a) the system of movements related to one skill corresponds to the system of movements related to another skill; b) when the implementation of one skill creates favorable conditions for the implementation of another (one of the skills serves as a means of better mastering the other) c) when the end of one skill is the actual beginning of another and vice versa. Interference occurs when one of the following contradictions appears in the interaction of skills: a) the system of movements that relate to one skill contradicts and does not agree with the system of movements that make up the structure of another skill; b) when, when moving from one skill to another, you actually have to relearn, destroy the structure of the old skill; c) when the system of movements related to one skill is partially contained in another skill that has already been brought to automatism (in this case, when performing a new skill, movements characteristic of a previously learned skill automatically arise, which leads to a distortion of the movements necessary for the new skill) d) when the beginning and end of successively performed skills do not coincide with each other. With complete automation of skills, the phenomenon of interference is reduced to a minimum or completely disappears.

Important for understanding the process of skill formation is their transfer, that is, the distribution and use of skills formed as a result of performing some actions and activities to others. In order for such a transfer to occur normally, it is necessary for the skill to become generalized, universal, consistent with other skills, actions and activities, brought to the point of automatism.

Ability, unlike skills, is formed as a result of the coordination of skills, their integration into systems using actions that are under conscious control. Through the regulation of such actions, optimal management of skills is carried out. It is to ensure error-free and flexible execution of actions, that is, obtaining a reliable result of the action. The action itself in the structure of a skill is controlled by its purpose. For example, elementary school students, when learning to write, perform actions related to writing individual elements of letters. At the same time, the skills of holding a pencil in the hand and performing basic hand movements are usually performed automatically. The main thing in managing skills is to ensure that each action is error-free and sufficiently flexible. This means the practical exclusion of low quality work, variability and the ability to adapt the system of skills to operating conditions that change from time to time, while maintaining positive work results. So, the ability to do something with your own hands means that a person who has such skills will always work well and is able to maintain high quality work under any conditions. The ability to teach means that a teacher is able to teach any normal student what he himself knows and can do.

One of the main qualities that belong to skills is that a person has the ability to change the structure of skills - the skills, operations and actions that are part of the skills, the sequence of their implementation, while keeping the final result unchanged. A skilled person can replace one material with another when making any product, make it himself or use existing tools, other available means, in a word, he will find a way out in almost any situation.

Ability, unlike skills, is always based on active intellectual activity and necessarily includes thinking processes. Conscious intellectual control is the main thing that distinguishes skill from skills. Activation of intellectual activity in skills occurs at those moments when the conditions of activity change, non-standard situations arise that require the prompt adoption of reasonable decisions. Management of skills at the level of the central nervous system is carried out by higher anatomical and physiological authorities than the management of skills, that is, at the level of the cerebral cortex.

Skills and abilities are divided into several types: motor, cognitive, theoretical and practical. Motor ones include a variety of movements, complex and simple, that make up the external, motor aspects of activity. There are special types of activities (for example, sports) that are entirely based on motor skills and abilities. Cognitive skills include the ability to search, perceive, remember, and process information. They correlate with basic mental processes and involve the formation of knowledge. Theoretical skills are associated with abstract intelligence. They manifest themselves in a person’s ability to analyze, generalize material, put forward hypotheses, theories, and translate information from one sign system to another. Such skills and abilities all turn out to be creative work associated with obtaining an ideal product of thought. Practical skills are demonstrated when performing practical activities and manufacturing a specific product. It is through their example that one can demonstrate the formation and manifestation of skills in their pure form.

Exercises are of great importance in the formation of all types of skills. Thanks to them, skills are automated, skills and activities are improved in general. Exercises are necessary both at the stage of developing skills and abilities, and in the process of maintaining them. Without constant, systematic exercise, skills and abilities often lose their quality.

Another element of activity is habit. It differs from ability and skills in that it represents a so-called unproductive element of activity. If skills and abilities are associated with the solution of any task, involving the receipt of any product, and are quite flexible (in the structure of complex skills), then a habit is an inflexible (often unreasonable) part of the activity performed by a person mechanically and does not have a conscious goal or clearly expressed productive completion. Unlike a simple skill, a habit can be consciously controlled to a certain extent. But it differs from skill in that it is not always reasonable and useful (bad habits). Habits as elements of activity are the least flexible part of it. Therefore, it is important that the child immediately develops useful habits that have a positive impact on the formation of the personality as a whole.