How the human foot works: anatomy, “weak points”, possible diseases and their prevention. Useful information about the bones of the foot

Ligaments and joints of the foot, right. Plantar surface (bottom view). The subtalar joint is formed by the talus and calcaneus and is located in their posterior section. The tarsometatarsal joints are located between the tarsal bones and between the tarsal and metatarsal bones. So, the difference between ligaments and joints is that ligaments connect only bones to each other, and tendons connect bones and muscles. Ligaments are thicker and tendons are thinner.

It has articular surfaces that articulate with adjacent bones. Each of the five metatarsal bones is tubular in shape. They distinguish between the base, body and head.

Ankle joint

The toes are made up of phalanges. As on the hand, the first toe has two phalanges, and the rest have three. Often the two phalanges of the fifth finger grow together so that its skeleton can have two phalanges.

Sesamoid bones increase the transverse arch of the metatarsus in its anterior section. The ankle joint is formed by the bones of the lower leg and the talus. The amount of mobility during flexion and extension reaches 90°. Due to the fact that the block at the back narrows somewhat, when the foot is flexed, some adduction and abduction becomes possible. The joint is strengthened by ligaments located on its inner and outer sides.

The joint is surrounded by a thin capsule equipped with small ligaments. One of the age-related features of the position of the bones and their movements in the joints of the foot is that with age the foot pronates somewhat and its internal arch drops. These joints are small, mostly flat in shape, with very limited mobility.

The metatarsophalangeal joints have a spherical shape, but their mobility is relatively low. They are formed by the heads of the metatarsal bones and the bases of the proximal phalanges of the toes. Mostly they allow flexion and extension of the fingers.

On the plantar surface of the foot, the muscles are divided into internal, external and middle groups. The outer group includes the muscles that act on the fifth toe: the abductor of the little toe and the flexor of the little toe. All of these muscles originate on the tarsal and metatarsal bones on the plantar side of the foot, with the exception of the lumbrical muscles, which originate from the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus.

When comparing the muscles of the plantar and dorsum of the foot, it is clear that the former are much stronger than the latter. This is due to the difference in their functions. The muscles of the plantar surface of the foot are involved in maintaining the arches of the foot and largely provide its spring properties. In front there is a ligament - the upper retinaculum of the extensor tendons, and at the transition point to the dorsum of the foot - the lower retinaculum of the extensor tendons.

Subtalar joint

Above the groove, the fascia of the leg, passing into the fascia of the foot, forms a thickening in the form of a ligament - the retinaculum of the flexor tendons. The fascia of the foot on the dorsal surface is much thinner than on the plantar surface. This aponeurosis has processes in the form of fibrous plates that reach the bones of the metatarsus. Calcaneocuboid joint, art. calcaneocuboidea, formed by the articular surfaces of the calcaneus and cuboid bones facing each other.

In addition, adduction and abduction around a vertical axis are possible here, when the tip of the foot deviates from the midline medially and laterally. Finally, there may also be extension and flexion around the frontal axis. Movements around three axes are also performed in art. talocalcaneonavicularis, which is a complex spherical joint.

The innervation of the joint capsules is provided by the branches of the nn. plantares medialis et lateralis u nn. peronei superficialis et profundus. The foot is a peripheral part of the lower limb, which is an organ of support for the body and simultaneously performs the functions of a spring apparatus.

Bones in the foot

The foot has a complex anatomical structure. It contains the metatarsus, tarsus and fingers and two surfaces: plantar and dorsal. The human foot is the lowest part of the lower limb. According to the bone structure, the foot is divided into tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges. The arch is that part of the foot that normally does not touch the ground on the side of the sole, but on the back side forms the instep of the foot.

What tests and diagnostics need to be done for the joints of the foot:

The generalized area of ​​the arch and heel can be called the tarsus, and the fingers with the pad of the toe or toe. The pad of the big toe is flatter, wider and separated from the foot by a clearly cut fold. In the rear, the sole has a smooth shape in the area adjacent to the heel, in the front, as well as on the sides and as it approaches the toes.

The back of the fingers allows us to see the width of the phalangeal joints, a number of transverse skin folds and small nail plates.

Cartilage in the biomechanics of the feet

According to the position of the forefoot relative to the back, the feet can be divided into straight, adducted and abducted. In addition, the foot can twist along the longitudinal axis, and its outer and inner edges can rise. Human footprints are studied in forensic science. The bones of the foot extend from the tips of the toes to the heel, uniting in the body of the foot. The forefoot consists of the metatarsus and toes, and the hindfoot is formed by the tarsal bones.

The plantar muscles of humans, in turn, are divided into the muscles of the eminence of the big toe, the muscles of the eminence of the small toe (little finger) and the muscles of the median eminence. In European and Japanese cultures, it is customary to cover feet with shoes when outdoors, mainly to protect them from injury.

Many scientific and pseudo-scientific areas of knowledge are devoted to human feet. The branch of medicine that deals with the health of human feet is called podiatry. In Chinese traditional medicine acupuncture, the foot contains 34 of the 365 acupuncture points. Foot acupuncture is also called pedopuncture.

The feet are an important part of acupuncture-related reflexology. To have healthy feet, it is very important to know their structure. Ligaments serve to maintain the joint in a certain position, giving it strength and support. Ligaments connect bones to each other using joints.

The condition of the collagen determines how flexible and elastic the tissues that contain this collagen will be. Ligaments and tendons can be stronger (if you train and condition) and weaker (if you are sedentary or older). It controls the movement of your foot when you walk, run, or generally move your legs. It is attached from the heel bone to the triceps muscle in the lower leg area. Then the triceps muscle contracts, and the traction force moves the tendon towards the foot. The man rises on his toes.

The forefoot, especially in the toes, is mobile and compressible. The interphalangeal joints of the foot are located between the individual phalanges of the fingers and have a block-like shape; on the sides they are strengthened by collateral ligaments. The longest bone is the second, the shortest and thickest is the first. The bones of the foot are connected by ligaments, some of which help the joint capsules to be stronger and fixed in a certain position.

Since a person moves in an upright position, the lion's share of the load falls on the lower extremities. Therefore, it is important to monitor your body weight, making it easier for the bones of the foot to work.

The structure of the ankle joint in humans is represented by the articulation of the bones of the foot with the shin bones, ensuring the performance of complex functions.

Human ankle joint

The bones are clearly shown in the diagram and classified into groups.

These include:

1. Articulation of the bones of the lower leg with the bones of the foot.
2. Internal articulation of the tarsal bones.
3. Articulations between the bones of the metatarsus and tarsus.
4. Articulations of the proximal phalanges with the metatarsal bones.
5. Articulation of the phalanges of the fingers with each other.

The anatomical abilities of the foot require a high level of motor activity. For this reason, a person can perform heavy physical activity.

Both the foot and the entire leg are designed to help a person move freely in the environment.

The structure of the foot is divided into 3 working parts:

1. Bones.
2. Ligaments.
3. Muscles.

The skeletal base of the foot includes 3 sections: toes, metatarsus and tarsus.

The design of the toes includes phalanges. Just like the hand, the big toe consists of 2 phalanges, and the remaining 4 fingers - of 3.

There are often cases when the 2 components of the 5th fingers grow together, forming a finger structure of 2 phalanges.

The structure has proximal, distal and middle phalanges. They differ from the phalanges of the hand in that their length is shorter. A clear expression of this is seen in the distal phalanges.

The tarsal bones of the posterior section have talus and calcaneal components, and the posterior section is divided into cuboid, scaphoid and sphenoid bones.

The talus lies at a distance from the distal end of the tibia, becoming the bony meniscus between the bones of the foot and knee.

It consists of a head, neck and body, and is designed to connect with the shin bones, ankle bones and calcaneus.

The calcaneus is part of the posterior lower lobe of the tarsus. It is the largest part of the foot and has a laterally flattened, elongated appearance. At the same time, the calcaneus is the connecting link between the cuboid and talus bones.

The navicular bone is located on the inside of the foot. It has a convex forward appearance with articular components connecting to nearby bones.

The cuboid part is located on the outer side of the foot, articulating with the calcaneus, navicular, cuneiform and metatarsal bones. At the bottom of the cuboid bone there is a groove in which the tendon of the elongated peroneus muscle is laid.

The composition of the sphenoid bones includes:

• Medial.
• Intermediate.
• Lateral.

They lie in front of the scaphoid, inboard of the cuboid, behind the first 3 metatarsal fragments and represent the anterior inner part of the tarsus.

The skeleton of the metatarsus appears in tubular segments, consisting of a head, body and base, where the body is similar to a triangular prism. In this case, the longest bone is the second, and the thickest and shortest is the first.

Bases of the metatarsal bones equipped with articular surfaces, serving as a connection with the bony components of the tarsus. In addition, it articulates with the adjacent bones of the metatarsus. At the same time, the heads equipped with articular surfaces are connected to the proximal phalanges.

The metatarsal bones are easily palpated due to the fairly thin covering of soft tissue. They are placed in multi-angle planes, creating a vault in a transverse line.

Circulatory and nervous systems of the foot

Nerve endings and blood arteries are considered an important component of the foot.

Distinguish 2 main arteries of the foot:

• Rear.
• Posterior tibial.

Also, the circulatory system includes small arteries that distribute to all tissue areas.

Due to the distance of the arteries of the feet from the heart, circulatory disorders are often recorded due to oxygen deficiency. The results of this manifest themselves in the form of atherosclerosis.

The longest vein that carries blood to the heart area is located at the point of the big toe, extending inside the leg. It is commonly called the great saphenous vein. In this case, the small saphenous vein runs along the outside of the leg.

Placed deep into the legs tibial anterior and posterior veins, and small ones drive blood into large veins. Moreover, small arteries supply tissues with blood, and tiny capillaries connect veins and arteries.

A person suffering from circulatory disorders notes the presence of edema in the afternoon. In addition, varicose veins may appear.

As in other parts of the body, nerve roots in the foot read all sensations and transmit them to the brain, controlling movement.

The nervous system of the foot includes:

1. Superficial fibular.
2. Deep fibula.
3. Posterior tibial.
4. Calf.

Tight shoes can compress any nerve, causing swelling, which will lead to discomfort, numbness and pain.

Diagnostic measures

At the moment when alarming symptoms arise in the foot area, a person comes to an orthopedist and traumatologist, who, knowing the complete structure of the ankle joint, can determine a lot by external signs. But at the same time, specialists prescribe the examination necessary for a 100% correct diagnosis.

Examination methods include:

• X-ray examination.
• Ultrasonography.
• Computed and magnetic resonance imaging.
• Athroscopy.

Detecting pathologies using x-rays is the most cost-effective option. Pictures are taken from several sides, recording possible dislocations, tumors, fractures and other processes.

Ultrasound helps to detect concentrations of blood, find foreign bodies, a possible swelling process in the joint capsule, and also check the condition of the ligaments.

Computed tomography provides a complete examination of bone tissue for neoplasms, fractures and arthrosis. Magnetic resonance imaging is an expensive research technique that provides maximum reliable information about the Achilles tendon, ligaments and articular cartilage.

Athroscopy– a minimally invasive intervention that involves inserting a special camera into the joint capsule, through which the doctor will be able to see all the pathologies of the ankle joint.

After collecting all the information using instrumental and hardware means, examining doctors and obtaining laboratory test results, an accurate diagnosis is made with the determination of treatment methods.

Pathologies of the ankle and feet

Frequent pain, external changes, swelling and impaired motor functions can be signs of foot ailments.

Typically, a person may experience the following diseases:

• Arthrosis in the ankle joint.
• Arthrosis of the toes.
• Valgus change of the thumb.

Arthrosis of the ankle joint is characterized by crunching, pain, swelling, and fatigue during running and walking. This is due to the course of the inflammatory process, which damages the cartilage tissue, leading to typical deformation of joint tissue.

The causes of the disease can be constant increased loads and injuries, provoking the development of dysplasia, osteodystrophy and negative changes in statics.

Treatment is carried out based on the degree of arthrosis with means that reduce pain, restore blood circulation and block the spread of the disease. In difficult cases surgery is performed, relieving the patient of damaged joint segments, restoring mobility and eliminating pain.

Arthrosis of the toes is noted as a result of disruption of metabolic processes and typical blood circulation in the metatarsophalangeal joints. This is facilitated by a lack of moderation in exercise, uncomfortable narrow shoes, injuries, excess weight and frequent hypothermia.

Symptoms of the disease include swelling, deformation of the structure of the fingers, pain during movement and crunching.

At the initial stage of finger arthrosis, measures are taken to avoid deformation and relieve pain. If an advanced stage is detected, in most cases the doctor prescribes arthrodesis, endoprosthesis replacement or surgical arthroplasty, which should completely solve the problem of the disease.

Hallux valgus, better known as a “bump” at the base of the big toe. This disease is characterized displacement of the head of one phalangeal bone, inclination of the big toe towards the other four, weakening of the muscles and resulting deformation of the foot.

Treatment that inhibits the development of the disease is determined by prescribing baths, physiotherapy, and physical therapy. When the form of changes becomes obvious, an operation is performed, the method of which is determined by the attending orthopedist, taking into account the stage of the disease and the general well-being of the patient.

The hypodermis smoothes out the unevenness of the organs located under the skin and also has a softening (shock-absorbing) effect. On the other hand, subcutaneous tissue serves as the body's fat depot and, in addition, since fat is a poor conductor of heat, it helps maintain body temperature. Another function of the hypodermis is to provide mobility to the skin.

The dermis has two layers:

• Reticulate
• Papillary

They are separated by a capillary network.

The sebaceous glands are located in the dermis. Between 2 and 6 sebaceous glands surround each hair, depending on the part of the body. Together with the sweat glands, they form a protective film on the surface of the skin (water-lipid mantle), the acidity level of which is slightly shifted to the acidic side - 5.5 (in newborns - 6.5; during physical activity - 4.5). There are no sebaceous glands on the palms and soles.

The dermis and epidermis are separated by a basement membrane - a formation that has a convoluted configuration, thereby providing mechanical adhesion (papillae and processes). The epidermis on the sole contains 5 layers:

• Basal - one row of cylindrical cells lying directly on the basement membrane. These are cells that are in a constant process of division. This layer contains melanocytes - cells that produce the pigment - melanin.
• Prickly - 6 - 8 rows of prismatic to spindle-shaped cells.
• Granular - 2 - 5 rows of spindle-shaped cells.
• Shiny (eleidine) - a layer that is expressed only on the palms and soles.
• Horny - cells are devoid of cellular structures and are completely filled with keratin. They are loosely interconnected and the last row peels off.

The cell cycle (i.e., the time from the formation of a cell in the basal layer to its exfoliation from the surface of the skin) is 20-30 days.

Skin functions:

1. Barrier (from external factors, chemicals, ultraviolet radiation, electricity, infections)
2. Sense organ (deep pressure, touch, cold, heat, UV rays)
3. Thermoregulation (sweating, evaporation, heat transfer)
4. Metabolism (accumulation of substances in the dermis)
5. Breathing (permeability). Human skin, being in water, according to the concentration gradient, releases certain substances into the water. The duration varies depending on age: infants - 5 minutes, adolescents - 10 minutes, adults - 15 minutes.
6. Function of the immune system
7. Endocrine and exocrine function.

Foot structure

The foot is designed for support, acts as a shock absorber, helps maintain balance when changing position, and adapts to uneven ground surfaces. Based on the appearance of the toes, three types of feet are distinguished:

• 60% "Egyptian foot". The thumb is longer than all the others.
• 25% "Quadrangular". The thumb and second finger are the same length.
• 15% "Greek foot". The second finger is longer than the others.

The foot skeleton is divided into 3 sections:

Tarsus. The tarsal bones are seven spongy bones located in two rows, between the tibia and metatarsus. The posterior row is formed by the talus and calcaneus, and the anterior row by the scaphoid, cuboid and three sphenoid bones: medial, intermediate and lateral.

The heel bone is the largest bone in the foot. It is located under the talus and protrudes significantly from under it. The calcaneal tubercle is the main fulcrum of the lower limb.

The talus tarsus bone, together with the bones of the lower leg, forms the ankle joint.

The metatarsus is made up of five tubular bones. The shortest and thickest is the first metatarsal bone, the longest is the second. The metatarsal bones are divided into a body, a head and a base. The bases of these bones are connected to the bones of the tarsus, and the heads are connected to the bases of the proximal phalanges of the fingers.

Phalanges of the fingers. The toes have three phalanges:

• Proximal.
• Average.
• Distal (end).

The exception is the thumb, the skeleton of which consists of two phalanges:

• Proximal.
• Distal (end).

Phalanges are tubular bones. The base of each bone has a flattened fossa that forms a joint with a head corresponding to the metatarsal bone. The phalanges do not play a noticeable role in the support function, because they lightly touch the ground.

The tarsal and metatarsal bones do not lie in the same plane. The talus is located on the calcaneus, and the navicular is located above the calcaneus and cuboid. With this mutual arrangement, the arch of the foot is formed, which provides spring support for the lower limb. The arch of the foot has a convexity facing upward. The foot rests on the ground only at several points: at the back is the tubercle of the calcaneus, at the front are the heads of the 1st and 5th metatarsals.

The foot produces the following movements: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation inward and outward. The muscles of the foot are divided into the muscles of the dorsum of the foot and the muscles of the plantar surface. The muscles of the dorsum of the foot are extensors. The muscles of the sole are flexors.

This article will consider the anatomical skeleton of the human leg, foot, arm, hand, pelvis, chest, neck, skull, shoulder and forearm: diagram, structure, description.

The skeleton is the supporting support for the organs and muscles that support our life and allows us to move. Each part consists of several sections, and they, in turn, are made of bones that can change over time and subsequently receive injuries.

Sometimes there are anomalies in the growth of bones, but with proper and timely correction they can be restored to anatomical shape. In order to identify developmental pathologies in time and provide first aid, it is necessary to know the structure of the body. Today we will talk about the structure of the human skeleton in order to understand once and for all the variety of bones and their functions.

Human skeleton - bones, their structure and names: diagram, photo from front, side, back, description

The skeleton is the collection of all the bones. Each of them also has a name. They differ in structure, density, shape and different purposes.

When born, a newborn has 270 bones, but under the influence of time they begin to develop, uniting with each other. Therefore, there are only 200 bones in the adult body. The skeleton has 2 main groups:

• Axial
• Additional

• Skull (facial, brain parts)
• Thorax (includes 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs, sternum and manubrium)
• Spine (cervical and lumbar)

The additional part includes:

• Upper limb girdle (including collarbones and shoulder blades)
• Upper limbs (shoulders, forearms, hands, phalanges)
• Lower limb girdle (sacrum, coccyx, pelvis, radius)
• Lower extremities (patella, femur, tibia, fibula, phalanges, tarsus and metatarsus)

Also, each of the sections of the skeleton has its own structural nuances. For example, the skull is divided into the following parts:

• Frontal
• Parietal
• Occipital
• Temporal
• Zygomatic
• Lower jaw
• Upper jaw
• tearful
• Bow
• Lattice
• Wedge-shaped

The spine is a ridge that is formed thanks to the bones and cartilage lined along the back. It serves as a kind of frame to which all other bones are attached. Unlike other sections and bones, the spine is characterized by a more complex placement and has several component vertebrae:

• Cervical spine (7 vertebrae, C1-C7);
• Thoracic region (12 vertebrae, Th1-Th12);
• Lumbar (5 vertebrae, L1-L5);
• Sacral section (5 vertebrae, S1-S5);
• Coccygeal region (3–5 vertebrae, Co1-Co5).

All departments consist of several vertebrae, which affect the internal organs, the ability to function the limbs, neck and other parts of the body. Almost all the bones in the body are interconnected, so regular monitoring and timely treatment for injuries is necessary to avoid complications in other parts of the body.

Main parts of the human skeleton, number, weight of bones

The skeleton changes throughout a person's life. This is associated not only with natural growth, but also with aging, as well as certain diseases.

• As mentioned earlier, at birth a child has 270 bones. But over time, many of them unite, forming a natural skeleton for adults. Therefore, fully formed humans may have between 200 and 208 bones. 33 of them are usually not paired.
• The growth process can last up to 25 years, so the final structure of the body and bones can be seen on an x-ray upon reaching this age. This is why many people suffering from diseases of the spine and bones take medication and various therapeutic methods only until they are 25 years old. After all, after growth stops, the patient’s condition can be maintained, but it cannot be improved.

The weight of the skeleton is determined as a percentage of the total body weight:

• 14% in newborns and children
• 16% in women
• 18% for men

The average representative of the stronger sex has 14 kg of bones of his total weight. Women only 10 kg. But many of us are familiar with the phrase: “Broad bone.” This means that their structure is slightly different, and their density is greater. In order to determine whether you belong to this type of people, just use a centimeter and wrap it around your wrist. If the volume reaches 19 cm or more, then your bones are really stronger and larger.

Skeletal mass is also affected by:

• Age
• Nationality

Many representatives of different nations of the world differ significantly from each other in height and even physique. This is due to evolutionary development, as well as the tightly ingrained genotype of the nation.

The main parts of the skeleton contain different numbers of bones, for example:

• 23 – in the skull
• 26 – in the spinal columns
• 25 – in the ribs and sternum
• 64 – in the upper extremities
• 62 – in the lower extremities

They can also change throughout a person’s life under the influence of the following factors:

• Diseases of the musculoskeletal system, bones and joints
• Obesity
• Injuries
• Active sports and dancing
• Poor nutrition

Anatomical skeleton of a leg, human foot: diagram, description

The legs belong to the lower extremities section. They have several departments and function thanks to mutual support.

The legs are attached to the lower limb girdle (pelvis), but not all of them are spaced evenly. There are several that are located only at the back. If we consider the structure of the legs from the front, we can note the presence of the following bones:

• Femoral
• Patellar
• Bolshebertsov
• Malobertsovykh
• Tarsal
• Plusnevyh
• Phalanx

The heel bone is located at the back. It connects the leg and foot. However, it is impossible to see it on an x-ray from the front. In general, the foot differs in its structure and includes:

• Heel bone
• Ram
• Cuboid
• Scaphoid
• 3rd wedge-shaped
• 2nd wedge-shaped
• 1st wedge-shaped
• 1st metatarsal
• 2nd metatarsal
• 3rd metatarsal
• 4th metatarsal
• 5th metatarsal
• Main phalanges
• Terminal phalanges

All bones are connected to each other, which allows the foot to function fully. If one of the parts is injured, the work of the entire department will be disrupted, therefore, for various injuries, it is necessary to take a number of methods aimed at immobilizing the affected area and contact a traumatologist or surgeon.

Anatomical skeleton of a human arm and hand: diagram, description

Hands allow us to lead a full life. However, this is one of the most complex sections in the human body. After all, many bones complement each other’s functions. Therefore, if one of them is damaged, we will not be able to return to our previous activities without receiving medical assistance. The skeleton of the hand means:

• Clavicle
• Shoulder and scapula joints
• Spatula
• humerus
• Elbow joint
• Ulna
• Radius
• Wrist
• Metacarpal bones
• Presence of proximal, intermediate and distal phalanges

The joints connect the main bones to each other, therefore they provide not only their movement, but also the work of the entire arm. If the intermediate or distal phalanges are injured, other parts of the skeleton will not suffer, since they are not connected to more important parts. But if there are problems with the collarbone, humerus or ulna, the person will not be able to control and fully move the arm.

Therefore, if you have received any injury, you cannot ignore going to the doctor, because in the case of tissue fusion without proper help, this is fraught with complete immobility in the future.

Anatomical skeleton of the human shoulder and forearm: diagram, description

The shoulders not only connect the arms to the body, but also help the body acquire the necessary proportionality from an aesthetic point of view.

At the same time, it is one of the most vulnerable parts of the body. After all, the forearm and shoulders bear a huge load, both in everyday life and when playing sports with heavy weight. The structure of this part of the skeleton is as follows:

• Clavicle (has the connecting function of the scapula and the main skeleton)
• Shoulder blade (combines the muscles of the back and arms)
• Coracoid process (holds all ligaments)
• Brachial process (protects from injury)
• Glenoid cavity of the scapula (also has a connecting function)
• Head of the humerus (forms an abutment)
• Anatomical neck of the humerus (supports the fibrous tissue of the joint capsule)
• Humerus (provides movement)

As you can see, all sections of the shoulder and forearm complement each other's functions, and are also placed in such a way as to provide maximum protection to the joints and thinner bones. With their help, the hands move freely, starting from the phalanges of the fingers and ending with the collarbones.

Anatomical skeleton of the human chest and pelvis: diagram, description

The chest in the body protects the most important organs and the spine from injury, and also prevents their displacement and deformation. The pelvis plays the role of a frame that keeps the organs immobile. It is also worth saying that it is to the pelvis that our legs are attached.

The chest, or rather its frame, consists of 4 parts:

• Two sides
• Front
• Rear

The frame of the human chest is represented by the ribs, the sternum itself, the vertebrae and the ligaments and joints connecting them.

The back support is the spine, and the front part of the chest consists of cartilage. In total, this part of the skeleton has 12 pairs of ribs (1 pair attached to a vertebra).

By the way, the chest encircles all vital organs:

• Heart
• Lungs
• Pancreas
• Part of the stomach

However, when diseases of the spine occur, as well as its deformation, the ribs and parts of the cage can also change, creating unnecessary compression and pain.

The shape of the sternum can vary depending on genetics, breathing patterns, and overall health. Infants, as a rule, have a protruding chest, but during the period of active growth it becomes less visually pronounced. It is also worth saying that in women it is more well developed and has advantages in width compared to men.

The pelvis differs significantly depending on the gender of the person. Women have the following characteristics:

• Large width
• Shorter length
• The shape of the cavity resembles a cylinder
• The entrance to the pelvis is rounded
• The sacrum is short and wide
• The wings of the ilium are horizontal
• The angle of the pubic area reaches 90-100 degrees

Men have the following characteristics:

• The pelvis is narrower, but high
• The wings of the ilium are located horizontally
• The sacrum is narrower and longer
• Pubic angle about 70-75 degrees
• Card Heart Login Form
• Pelvic cavity resembling a cone

The general structure includes:

• Greater pelvis (fifth lumbar vertebra, posterior superior axis of the garter, sacroiliac joint)
• Border line (sacrum, coccyx)
• Small pelvis (pubic symphysis, anterior superior part of the garter)

Anatomical skeleton of the neck, human skull: diagram, description

The neck and skull are complementary parts of the skeleton. After all, without each other they will not have fastenings, which means they will not be able to function. The skull combines several parts. They are divided into subcategories:

• Frontal
• Parietal
• Occipital
• Temporal
• Zygomatic
• Lacrimal
• Nasals
• Lattice
• Wedge-shaped

In addition, the lower and upper jaws are also related to the structure of the skull.

The neck is slightly different and includes:

• sternum
• Clavicles
• Thyroid cartilage
• Hyoid bone

They connect to the most important parts of the spine and help all the bones function without straining them due to their correct position.

What is the role of the human skeleton, what ensures mobility, what is referred to as the mechanical function of the bones of the skeleton?

In order to understand what the functions of the skeleton are, and why it is so important to maintain normal bones and posture, it is necessary to consider the skeleton from a logical point of view. After all, muscles, blood vessels and nerve endings cannot exist independently. To perform optimally, they need a frame on which they can be mounted.

The skeleton performs the function of protecting vital internal organs from displacement and injury. Not many people know, but our bones can withstand a load of 200 kg, which is comparable to steel. But if they were made of metal, human movements would become impossible, because the scale mark could reach 300 kg.

Therefore, mobility is ensured by the following factors:

• Presence of joints
• Lightness of bones
• Flexibility of muscles and tendons

In the process of development, we learn movements and plasticity. With regular exercise or any physical activity, you can achieve increased flexibility, speed up the growth process, and also form the correct musculoskeletal system.

The mechanical functions of the skeleton include:

• Movement
• Protection
• Depreciation
• And, of course, support

Among the biological ones there are:

• Participation in metabolism
• Hematopoiesis process

All these factors are possible due to the chemical composition and anatomical features of the skeleton. Because bones are made up of:

• Water (about 50%)
• Fat (16%)
• Collagen (13%)
• Chemical compounds (manganese, calcium, sulfate and others)

Bones of the human skeleton: how are they connected to each other?

The bones are fixed to each other using tendons and joints. After all, they help ensure the process of movement and protect the skeleton from premature wear and thinning.

However, not all bones are the same in their attachment structure. Depending on the connective tissue, there are sedentary and mobile with the help of joints.

In total there are about 4 hundred ligaments in the body of an adult. The strongest of them helps the functioning of the tibia and can withstand loads of up to 2 centners. However, not only ligaments help provide mobility, but also the anatomical structure of the bones. They are made in such a way that they complement each other. But in the absence of a lubricant, the service life of the skeleton would not be so long. Since bones could quickly wear away due to friction, the following are called upon to protect against this destructive factor:

• Joints
• Cartilage
• Periarticular tissue
• Bursa
• Interarticular fluid

Ligaments connect the most important and largest bones in our body:

• tibial
• Tarsals
• Radiation
• Spatula
• Clavicles

What are the structural features of the human skeleton associated with upright walking?

With the development of evolution, the human body, including its skeleton, has undergone significant changes. These changes were aimed at preserving life and developing the human body in accordance with the requirements of weather conditions.

The most significant skeletal rearrangements include the following factors:

• The appearance of S-shaped curves (they provide balance support and also help concentrate muscles and bones when jumping and running).
• The upper extremities became more mobile, including the phalanges of the fingers and hands (this helped develop fine motor skills, as well as perform complex tasks such as grabbing or holding someone).
• The size of the chest has become smaller (this is due to the fact that the human body no longer needs to consume as much oxygen. This happened because the person has become taller and, moving on the two lower limbs, receives more air).
• Changes in the structure of the skull (the work of the brain has reached high levels, therefore, with increased intellectual work, the cerebral region has taken precedence over the facial region).
• Expansion of the pelvis (the need to bear offspring, as well as to protect the internal organs of the pelvis).
• The lower limbs began to predominate in size over the upper ones (this is due to the need to search for food and move, because to overcome long distances and walking speed, the legs must be larger and stronger).

Thus, we see that under the influence of evolutionary processes, as well as the need for life support, the body is capable of rearranging itself into different positions, taking any position to preserve the life of a person as a biological individual.

What is the longest, most massive, strong and small bone in the human skeleton?

The adult human body contains a huge number of bones of different diameters, sizes and densities. We don’t even know about the existence of many of them, because they are not felt at all.

But there are a few of the most interesting bones that help support body functions, while being significantly different from others.

• The femur is considered to be the longest and most massive. Its length in the body of an adult reaches at least 45 cm or more. It also affects the ability to walk and balance, and the length of the legs. It is the femur that takes on most of a person’s weight when moving and can support up to 200 kg of weight.
• The smallest bone is the stirrup. It is located in the middle ear and weighs several grams and is 3-4 mm long. But the stirrup allows you to capture sound vibrations, therefore it is one of the most important parts in the structure of the organ of hearing.
• The only part of the skull that retains motor activity is the lower jaw. She is able to withstand a load of several hundred kilograms, thanks to her developed facial muscles and specific structure.
• The tibia can rightfully be considered the strongest bone in the human body. It is this bone that can withstand compression with a force of up to 4000 kg, which is a full 1000 more than the femur.

Which bones are tubular in the human skeleton?

Tubular or long bones are those that have a cylindrical or trihedral shape. Their length is greater than their width. Such bones grow due to the process of lengthening the body, and at the ends they have an epiphysis covered with hyaline cartilage. The following bones are called tubular:

• Femoral
• fibular
• tibial
• Shoulder
• Elbow
• Radiation

The short tubular bones are:

• Phalanx
• Metacarpals
• Metatarsals

The above-mentioned bones are not only the longest, but also the strongest, because they can withstand great pressure and weight. Their growth depends on the general condition of the body and the amount of growth hormone produced. Tubular bones make up almost 50% of the entire human skeleton.

Which bones in the human skeleton are connected movably by means of a joint and motionlessly?

For the normal functioning of bones, they need reliable protection and fixation. For this purpose, there is a joint that plays a connecting role. However, not all bones are fixed in a movable state in our body. We cannot move many of them at all, but in their absence our life and health would not be complete.

The fixed bones include the skull, since the bone is integral and does not need any connecting materials.

The sedentary ones, which are connected to the skeleton by cartilage, are:

• Thoracic ends of ribs
• Vertebrae

Movable bones that are fixed by joints include the following:

• Shoulder
• Elbow
• Radiocarpal
• Femoral
• Knee
• tibial
• fibular

What tissue is the basis of the bones of the skeleton, what substance gives the human skeleton strength, what is the composition of the bones?

Bone is a collection of several types of tissue in the human body that form the basis for supporting muscles, nerve fibers and internal organs. They form the skeleton, which serves as a frame for the body.

Bones are:

• Flat – formed from connective tissues: shoulder blades, hip bones
• Short – formed from spongy substance: carpus, tarsus
• Mixed - arise by combining several types of tissues: skull, chest
• Pneumatic - contain oxygen inside, and are also covered with a mucous membrane
• Sesamoids - located in tendons

The following tissues play an active role in the formation of various types of bones:

• Connective
• Spongy substance
• Cartilaginous
• Coarse fiber
• Fine fiber

They all form bones of varying strength and location, and some parts of the skeleton, for example, the skull, contain several types of tissue.

How long does it take for the human skeleton to grow?

On average, the process of growth and development of the human body lasts from the moment of intrauterine conception to 25 years. Under the influence of many factors, this phenomenon may slow down, or, conversely, not stop until a more mature age. Such influencing features include:

• Lifestyle
• Food quality
• Heredity
• Hormonal imbalances
• Illnesses during pregnancy
• Genetic diseases
• Substance use
• Alcoholism
• Lack of physical activity

Many bones are formed under the influence of the production of growth hormone, but in medicine there are cases where people continued to grow throughout 40-50 years of life or, on the contrary, stopped in childhood.

• This may be associated with a number of genetic diseases, as well as disorders of the adrenal glands, thyroid gland and other organs.
• It is also important to note that the height of people in different countries differs significantly. For example, in Peru, most women are no taller than 150 cm, and men are no taller than 160 cm. While in Norway it is almost impossible to meet a person shorter than 170 cm. This significant difference is caused by evolutionary development. People had a need to obtain food, so their height and figure depended on the degree of activity and quality of food.

Here are some interesting facts about the development of the human body, in particular about growth.

If you are over 25 but want to grow taller, there are several methods that can help you increase your height at almost any age:

• Sports (regular physical exercise can correct your posture by adding a few centimeters).
• Pulling on the horizontal bar (under the influence of gravity, the vertebrae will take an anatomically correct shape and lengthen the overall height).
• Elizarov’s apparatus (suitable for the most radical citizens; the principle of operation is to increase the total length of the legs by 2-4 cm; before you decide, it is worth noting that the procedure is painful, since both legs of the patient are first broken, after which he is immobilized by the apparatus for several months, and then plaster). This method is only indicated when prescribed by a doctor.
• Yoga and swimming (with the development of flexibility of the spine, its length increases, and, consequently, height).

The main guarantee of a happy life is health. Before deciding on any surgical interventions, it is worth understanding the risks, as well as the consequences.

The skeleton is the natural support for our body. And taking care of it by giving up bad habits and proper nutrition will save you from joint diseases, fractures and other troubles in the future.

It is also worth remembering that in case of injury you must consult a doctor. After all, if the bone heals naturally, there is a risk of paralysis of the limb, and this in turn will lead to the need to further break the bone in order for it to heal properly.

Video: Human skeleton, its structure and meaning

The ankle joint is the supporting point of the human lower limb skeleton. It is on this joint that the body weight falls when walking, running, or playing sports. Unlike the knee joint, the foot withstands loads not by movement, but by weight, which affects the features of its anatomy. The structure of the ankle and other parts of the foot plays an important clinical role.

Before talking about the structure of the various parts of the foot, it should be mentioned that in this part of the leg bones, ligamentous structures and muscle elements organically interact.

In turn, the bony skeleton of the foot is divided into the tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges. The tarsal bones articulate with the tibia elements at the ankle joint.

Ankle joint

One of the largest bones of the tarsus is the talus. On the top surface there is a protrusion called a block. This element connects to the fibula and tibia on each side.

In the lateral sections of the joint there are bone outgrowths - ankles. The inner one is the tibia, and the outer one is the fibula. Each articular surface of the bones is lined with hyaline cartilage, which performs nutritional and shock-absorbing functions. The articulation is:

• The structure is complex (more than two bones are involved).
• The shape is block-shaped.
• The volume of movement is biaxial.

Ligaments

Holding bone structures together, protecting, limiting movements in the joint are possible thanks to the presence. The description of these structures should begin with the fact that they are divided into 3 groups in anatomy. The first category includes fibers that connect the bones of the human leg to each other:

1. The interosseous ligament is the lower section of the membrane stretched along the entire length of the leg between its bones.
2. The posterior inferior ligament is an element that prevents internal rotation of the bones of the leg.
3. Anterior inferior fibular ligament. The fibers of this structure run from the tibia to the lateral malleolus and help keep the foot from turning outward.
4. The transverse ligament is a small fibrous element that stabilizes the foot from turning inward.

In addition to the listed functions of the fibers, they provide reliable attachment of the fragile fibula to the powerful tibia. The second group of ligaments are the outer lateral fibers:

1. Anterior talofibular
2. Posterior talofibular.
3. Calcaneofibular.

These ligaments begin on the lateral malleolus of the fibula and diverge in different directions towards the elements of the tarsus, so they are combined with the term "". The function of these structures is to strengthen the outer edge of this area.

Finally, the third group of fibers are the internal collateral ligaments:

1. Tibiofanavicular.
2. Tibiocalcaneal.
3. Anterior tibiotalus.
4. Posterior tibiotalus.

Similar to the anatomy of the previous category of fibers, these ligaments originate at the medial malleolus and keep the tarsal bones from moving.

Muscles

Movements in the joint and additional fixation of the elements are achieved through the muscular elements surrounding the ankle. Each muscle has a specific attachment point on the foot and its own purpose, however, structures can be grouped into groups according to their predominant function.

Muscles involved in flexion include the tibialis posterior, plantaris, triceps, and flexor hallucis longus and other toes. The tibialis anterior, extensor pollicis longus, and extensor pollicis longus are responsible for extension.

The third muscle group is the pronators - these fibers rotate the ankle inward towards the midline. They are the short and long peroneus muscles. Their antagonists (supinators): extensor pollicis longus, peroneus anterior muscle.

Achilles tendon

The ankle joint in the posterior region is strengthened by the largest Achilles tendon in the human body. The formation is formed by the fusion of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles in the lower leg.

The powerful tendon, stretched between the muscle bellies and the heel tubercle, plays a vital role in movement.

An important clinical point is the possibility of ruptures and sprains of this structure. In this case, the traumatologist must carry out complex treatment to restore function.

Blood supply

Muscle work, restoration of elements after stress and injury, metabolism in the joint is possible thanks to the special anatomy of the circulatory network surrounding the joint. The structure of the ankle arteries is similar to the blood supply to the knee joint.

The anterior and posterior tibial and peroneal arteries branch in the area of ​​the external and internal ankles and cover the joint on all sides. Thanks to this arrangement of the arterial network, the full functioning of the anatomical region is possible.

Venous blood flows from this area through internal and external networks, which form important formations: the saphenous and tibial internal veins.

Other joints of the foot

The ankle joint unites the bones of the foot with the lower leg, but small fragments of the lower limb are also connected to each other by small joints:

1. The human calcaneus and talus participate in the formation of the subtalar joint. Together with the talocaleonavicular joint, it unites the bones of the tarsus - the hindfoot. Thanks to these elements, the rotation volume increases to 50 degrees.
2. The tarsal bones are connected to the middle part of the foot skeleton by tarsometatarsal joints. These elements are strengthened by the long plantar ligament, the most important fibrous structure that forms the longitudinal arch and prevents the development of flat feet.
3. The five metatarsal bones and the bases of the basal phalanges of the toes are connected by the metatarsophalangeal joints. And inside each finger there are two interphalangeal joints that connect small bones to each other. Each of them is strengthened on the sides by collateral ligaments.

This complex anatomy of the human foot allows it to maintain a balance between mobility and support function, which is very important for human upright walking.

Functions

The structure of the ankle joint is primarily aimed at achieving the mobility necessary for walking. Thanks to the coordinated work of the muscles in the joint, movements in two planes are possible. In the frontal axis, the human ankle performs flexion and extension. In the vertical plane, rotation is possible: inward and, to a small extent, outward.

In addition to its motor function, the ankle joint has a supporting role.

In addition, thanks to the soft tissues of this area, movement is absorbed, keeping the bone structures intact.

Diagnostics

In such a complex element of the musculoskeletal system as the ankle, various pathological processes can occur. To detect a defect, visualize it, and correctly make a reliable diagnosis, there are various diagnostic methods:

1. Radiography. The most economical and accessible way of research. Images of the ankle are taken in several projections, which can reveal a fracture, dislocation, tumor and other processes.
2. Ultrasound. At the present stage of diagnosis, it is rarely used, since, unlike the knee joint, the ankle cavity is small. However, the method is good at being economical, fast, and lacking harmful effects on tissue. You can detect accumulation of blood and swelling in the joint capsule, foreign bodies, and visualize ligaments. A description of the procedure and the results seen is given by a functional diagnostics doctor.
3. CT scan. CT is used to assess the condition of the skeletal system of the joint. For fractures, neoplasms, arthrosis, this technique is the most valuable in diagnostic terms.
4. Magnetic resonance imaging. As with the examination of the knee joint, this procedure will indicate better than any other the condition of the articular cartilage, ligaments, and Achilles tendon. The technique is expensive, but extremely informative.
5. Athroscopy. A minimally invasive, low-traumatic procedure that involves inserting a camera into the capsule. The doctor can examine the inner surface of the bag with his own eyes and determine the source of the pathology.

Instrumental methods are supplemented by the results of a medical examination and laboratory tests; based on the totality of data, the specialist makes a diagnosis.

Pathology of the ankle joint

Unfortunately, even such a strong element as the ankle joint is prone to the development of diseases and injuries. The most common ankle diseases are:

• Osteoarthritis.
• Arthritis.
• Injuries.
• Achilles tendon ruptures.

How to suspect diseases? What to do first and which specialist should you contact? It is necessary to understand each of the listed diseases.

Deforming arthrosis

The ankle joint is often subject to the development of deforming arthrosis. With this pathology, due to frequent stress, trauma, and lack of calcium, degeneration of bones and cartilaginous structures occurs. Over time, outgrowths - osteophytes - begin to form on the bones, which impair range of motion.

The pathology is manifested by pain of a mechanical nature. This means that the symptoms increase in the evening, intensify after exercise and decrease with rest. Morning stiffness is short-lived or absent. There is a gradual decrease in mobility in the ankle joint.

With such symptoms you need to consult a general practitioner. If necessary, if complications develop, the doctor will prescribe a consultation with another specialist.

Arthritis

Inflammation of the joint can occur when an infection enters the cavity or the development of rheumatoid arthritis. The ankle joint can also become inflamed due to the deposition of uric acid salts during gout. This happens even more often than a gouty attack of the knee joint.

The pathology manifests itself as pain in the joint in the second half of the night and in the morning. Movement relieves the pain. Symptoms are relieved by taking anti-inflammatory drugs (Ibuprofen, Nise, Diclofenac), as well as after using ointments and gels on the ankle area. You can also suspect the disease by simultaneous damage to the knee joint and the joints of the hand.

Diseases are treated by rheumatologists who prescribe basic remedies to eliminate the cause of the disease. Each disease has its own drugs that are designed to stop the progression of inflammation.

To eliminate symptoms, therapy similar to the treatment of arthrosis is prescribed. It includes a range of physiotherapy and medications.

It is important to distinguish infectious arthritis from other causes. It usually manifests itself with vivid symptoms with intense pain and edema syndrome. Pus accumulates in the joint cavity. Treatment is carried out with antibiotics, bed rest is required, and the patient often requires hospitalization.

Injuries

With direct trauma to the ankle joint in sports, during road traffic accidents, and at work, various tissues of the joint can be damaged. Damage causes bone fractures, ligament rupture, and tendon damage.

Common symptoms will be: pain after injury, swelling, decreased mobility, inability to stand on the injured limb.

After receiving an ankle injury, you need to apply ice to the injury site, provide rest for the limb, then go to the emergency room. After examination and diagnostic tests, the traumatologist will prescribe a set of treatment measures.

Therapy most often includes immobilization (immobilization of the limb below the knee joint), the prescription of anti-inflammatory and painkillers. Sometimes, to eliminate the pathology, surgical intervention is required, which can be performed classically or using arthroscopy.

Achilles tendon rupture

During sports activities, a fall on the leg or a direct blow to the back of the ankle can cause a complete rupture of the Achilles tendon. In this case, the patient cannot stand on his toes or straighten his foot. Swelling forms in the area of ​​damage and blood accumulates. Movement in the joint is extremely painful for the affected person.

A traumatologist will most likely recommend surgical treatment. Conservative therapy is possible, but in case of complete tendon rupture it is ineffective.