Functions of scientific knowledge in society. Functions of science

12/ Functions of science in modern society.

A sociological analysis of the activities of the institute of science in modern society gives grounds to assert that the main function of science is the production and multiplication of reliable knowledge, which makes it possible to reveal and explain the patterns of the surrounding world. Scientific explanation, in turn, allows us to predict and control the development of phenomena in the surrounding reality. And this makes it possible for a person to “dominate nature” and use knowledge about the natural and social world for the accelerated development of society. The above-mentioned main function of science in modern society can be specified and differentiated into a number of more specific ones, closely interconnected. Let us name the most significant of them: 1) ideological function; 2) technological; 3) the function of rationalizing human behavior and activity. Let's look at these functions in a little more detail. The worldview function of science is one of the most ancient; it has always existed. But in pre-industrial society, this function was subordinated to the mythological and religious views dominant in society. Its identification as independent, independent of religious values, occurs only during the formation of modern industrial society with the progress of scientific knowledge and the secularization of religion. Major scientific discoveries and the formation of new theories have a serious impact on the culture of society, leading to the breaking of existing stereotypes and attitudes towards the perception of the social and natural world. For example, the theory of evolution and the origin of man as a result of natural selection, discovered by Charles Darwin in the 1860s, caused upheavals in the minds of an entire generation of people and contributed to the revision of established ideas about the place of man in the natural world, the establishment of certain views on the origin of man, and revealed the connection man as a biological being with other biological species. Equally stunning was the influence of the ideas of A. Einstein’s theory of relativity on the cosmological picture of the world, which showed the relativity of many well-known and familiar concepts (“time”, “space”). Scientific progress leads to the fact that the system of scientific knowledge becomes not only a prerequisite for the successful development of the economic and technological sphere, but also a mandatory element of literacy and education of any person. Modern society is interested in scientific knowledge becoming the property of every person, because it rationalizes his relations with the outside world and allows him to quite clearly formulate his own worldview concept. For this reason, the study of the complex of the most important scientific achievements, even in the most generalized and accessible form, is a mandatory attribute of the socialization of the individual, which occurs in the process of secondary and then higher education. Scientific knowledge plays an important role in the state management of social processes, helps plan a strategy for the development of society, and carries out expert assessment of various social projects. At the same time, it would be a mistake to assume that the dissemination of scientific knowledge in society automatically leads to the elimination of religion from the life of society. There are good reasons for the existence of the latter in a modern technical and rational society. It is more difficult to answer the question of why in modern society, including post-Soviet Russian society, the influence of various anti-scientific ideas is quite strong. In recent years, horoscopes, various kinds of superstitions, pseudoscientific methods such as witchcraft, healing, etc. have become widespread. Apparently, science is by no means omnipotent and cannot yet provide answers to all the questions that concern the population of the country. In addition, many serious scientific discoveries, for example from the field of genetics or neurophysiology, are so complex and virtually inaccessible to the uninitiated that they make it difficult even to widely disseminate them. Technological function of science. If the ideological function of science is closely connected with man’s desire to understand the world around him, to know the truth, and the so-called Platonic ideal of science existed in previous eras, then the technological function began to clearly take shape only in modern times. The English philosopher Francis Bacon is rightfully considered its herald, who declared that “knowledge is power” and it should become a powerful tool for transforming nature and society. The technological function began to develop rapidly along with the formation of industrial society, ensuring the accelerated development of its productive forces thanks to the introduction of scientific achievements in various sectors - industry, agriculture, transport, communications, military equipment, etc. This artificial environment, thanks to the accelerated development of science and rapid implementation in the practice of scientific and technological innovations was created in less than one century. The habitat in which modern man lives is almost entirely a product of scientific and technological progress - aviation and mechanical transport, asphalt roads, high-rise buildings with elevators, means of communication - telephone, television, computer network, etc. Scientific and technological progress not only radically changed the human environment, creating, in essence, a second “artificial nature,” but also radically changed the entire way of human life, including the sphere of interpersonal relationships. “In a technogenic civilization,” notes V.S. Stepin, “scientific and technological progress is constantly changing the types of communication, forms of communication of people, personality types and lifestyles.” Over the life of even one generation, i.e. Over the course of approximately 20-25 years, under the influence of scientific and technological progress, the way of life changes so significantly that it complicates the mutual understanding of generations, exacerbating the conflict between “fathers” and “children”. The enormous impact of scientific and technological achievements on society acutely raises the question of their social consequences, since not all of them turn out to be favorable and predictable. Innovative creative activity, largely driven by the needs of constant progress and social development, is becoming the predominant type of social action. Every new invention is considered desirable and recognized as a social value. This, in turn, poses new challenges for the education system, designed to form a socially active personality. The third function of science - the rationalization of human behavior and activity - is closely related to the previous one, with the only difference that it relates not so much to the material and technical sphere, but to the social and humanitarian one. It was able to be realized only in the last two or three decades thanks to achievements in the field of social sciences - psychology, economics, cultural anthropology, sociology, etc. Thanks to the successes of these sciences, and primarily psychology, which is a basic discipline, it became possible to create and spread numerous social technologies - rational schemes and patterns of behavior with the help of which human activity brings more effective results. The impact of these technologies is most noticeable in the field of industrial organization. The use of scientific management achievements can significantly increase labor productivity and efficiency. That is why training in scientific management is one of the most pressing tasks of economic development in the country. Another example is educational technologies, which are being vigorously implemented, including in our country, in various educational institutions. Political technologies, which are written and talked about a lot during election campaigns, are also a striking example of the use of rational models of behavior for political leaders to achieve their goals. We encounter similar technologies at almost every step: from a beautiful and equipped store counter and salespeople trained in special techniques, right up to the sphere of high politics. All these examples indicate that scientific rationality really constitutes the highest value of modern society and its further progress leads to an expansion of the use of rationally based types of activities.

Human, which consists in collecting data about the world around us, then in their systematization and analysis and, based on the above, synthesis of new knowledge. Also in the field of science is the formulation of hypotheses and theories, as well as their further confirmation or refutation through experiments.

Science appeared when writing appeared. When five thousand years ago some ancient Sumerian carved pictograms on stone, depicting how his leader attacked a tribe of ancient Jews and how many cows he stole, history began.

Then he knocked out more and more useful facts about livestock, about the stars and the moon, about the structure of the cart and hut; and newborn biology, astronomy, physics and architecture, medicine and mathematics appeared.

Sciences began to be distinguished in their modern form after the 17th century. Before that, as soon as they were not called - craft, writing, being, life and other pseudo-scientific terms. And the sciences themselves were more of different types of techniques and technologies. The main engine of the development of science is scientific and industrial revolutions. For example, the invention of the steam engine gave a powerful impetus to the development of science in the 18th century and caused the first scientific and technological revolution.

Classification of sciences.

There have been many attempts to classify sciences. Aristotle, if not the first, then one of the first, divided the sciences into theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge and creative knowledge. The modern classification of sciences also divides them into three types:

Natural sciences, that is, sciences about natural phenomena, objects and processes (biology, geography, astronomy, physics, chemistry, mathematics, geology, etc.). For the most part, the natural sciences are responsible for accumulating experience and knowledge about nature and man. The scientists who collected the primary data were called naturalists.
Engineering Sciences- sciences responsible for the development of engineering and technology, as well as for the practical application of knowledge accumulated by the natural sciences (agronomy, computer science, architecture, mechanics, electrical engineering).
Social Sciences and Humanities- sciences about man and society (psychology, philology, sociology, political science, history, cultural studies, linguistics, as well as social studies, etc.).

Functions of science.

Researchers identify four social functions of science:

Cognitive. It consists of knowing the world, its laws and phenomena.
Educational. It lies not only in training, but also in social motivation and the development of values.
Cultural. Science is a public domain and a key element of human culture.
Practical. The function of producing material and social goods, as well as applying knowledge in practice.

Speaking about science, it is also worth mentioning the term “pseudoscience” (or “pseudoscience”).

Pseudoscience - This is an activity that pretends to be a scientific activity, but is not one. Pseudoscience can arise as:

fight against official science (ufology);
misconceptions due to lack of scientific knowledge (graphology, for example. And yes: it’s still not science!);
element of creativity (humor). (See Discovery show “Brainheads”).

The 20th century became the century of a victorious scientific revolution. Scientific and technological progress has accelerated in all developed countries.

Gradually, there was an increasing increase in the knowledge intensity of products. Technology was changing production methods. By the mid-20th century, the factory method of production became dominant. In the second half of the 20th century, automation became widespread. By the end of the 20th century, high technologies developed and the transition to an information economy continued. All this happened thanks to the development of science and technology. This had several consequences. Firstly, demands on employees have increased. They began to be required to have greater knowledge, as well as an understanding of new technological processes. Secondly, the share of mental workers and scientists has increased, that is, people whose work requires deep scientific knowledge. Thirdly, the growth in well-being caused by scientific and technical progress and the solution of many pressing problems of society gave rise to the belief of the broad masses in the ability of science to solve the problems of mankind and improve the quality of life. This new faith was reflected in many areas of culture and social thought. Such achievements as space exploration, the creation of nuclear energy, the first successes in the field of robotics gave rise to the belief in the inevitability of scientific, technological and social progress, and raised the hope of a quick solution to such problems as hunger, disease, etc.

And today we can say that science in modern society plays an important role in many industries and spheres of people’s lives. Undoubtedly, the level of development of science can serve as one of the main indicators of the development of society, and it is also, undoubtedly, an indicator of the economic, cultural, civilized, educated, modern development of the state.

The functions of science as a social force in solving global problems of our time are very important. An example here is environmental issues. As you know, rapid scientific and technological progress is one of the main reasons for such dangerous phenomena for society and people as the depletion of the planet’s natural resources, air, water, and soil pollution. Consequently, science is one of the factors in those radical and far from harmless changes that are taking place today in the human environment. The scientists themselves do not hide this. Scientific data also plays a leading role in determining the scale and parameters of environmental hazards.

The growing role of science in public life has given rise to its special status in modern culture and new features of its interaction with various layers of public consciousness. In this regard, the problem of the characteristics of scientific knowledge and its relationship with other forms of cognitive activity (art, everyday consciousness, etc.) is acutely raised.

This problem, being philosophical in nature, at the same time has great practical significance. Understanding the specifics of science is a necessary prerequisite for the introduction of scientific methods in the management of cultural processes. It is also necessary for constructing a theory of management of science itself in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, since elucidation of the laws of scientific knowledge requires an analysis of its social conditionality and its interaction with various phenomena of spiritual and material culture.

As the main criteria for identifying the functions of science, it is necessary to take the main types of activities of scientists, their range of responsibilities and tasks, as well as the areas of application and consumption of scientific knowledge. Some of the main functions are listed below:

1) cognitive function

Main purpose:

 knowledge of nature, society and man;

 rational-theoretical comprehension of the world, discovery of its laws and patterns;

 explanation of a wide variety of phenomena and processes;

 implementation of prognostic activities, i.e. production of new scientific knowledge.

2) ideological function (closely related to the first)

Main goals:

 development of a scientific worldview and a scientific picture of the world;

 study of the rationalistic aspects of a person’s relationship to the world;

 justification of the scientific worldview: scientists are called upon to develop worldview universals and value orientations, although, of course, philosophy plays a leading role in this matter;

3) production, technical and technological function

designed to introduce innovations, innovations, new technologies, forms of organization, etc. into production. Researchers talk and write about

the transformation of science into the direct productive force of society, about science as a special “shop” of production, the classification of scientists as productive workers, and all this precisely characterizes this function of science;

4) cultural, educational function

Science is a cultural phenomenon, a noticeable factor in the cultural development of people and education, and occupies an extremely important place in the sphere of spiritual production. Its achievements have a noticeable impact on the entire educational process, on the content of curriculum plans, textbooks, on technology, forms and methods of teaching. This function is carried out through cultural activities and politics, the education system and the media, the educational activities of scientists, etc.

The features of modern post-non-classical science have significantly influenced the dynamics of its functions in society and culture.

The characteristics of the functions performed by science in society, on the one hand, complement the integrative idea of it, on the other, makes it possible to determine more clear criteria for its difference from other forms of spiritual development of reality. The main ones, carried out in societies belonging to technogenic civilization, include three: 1) cultural and ideological; 2) the function of direct productive force; 3) the function of social power.

Within the framework of the cultural and worldview function, science is one of the main means of creating and transmitting worldview ideas and norms into the public consciousness. It largely determines the nature of objective ideas about the world and a person’s place in it, distinguishes a person as an active being who is in an active relationship to the world. Of particular importance in this regard are data from fundamental and humanities (especially the anthropological cycle) sciences.

Science has contributed to the greatest extent to the formation and rooting in the mass consciousness of the attitude according to which nature is an ordered formation, where a rational being (man), having learned its laws, is able to control and direct the processes occurring in it through technology, thereby satisfying its own needs. growing needs. In this ideological premise, where science is presented as one of the most important components of the productive forces and a factor in their development, lies the main meaning of the qualification of science, as a direct productive force, although science did not turn into such immediately. This function was fully realized only by post-non-classical science.

Human capabilities in cognition and transformation of social life, based on scientific knowledge, were thought in a similar way, which corresponds to the content of the third function of science - as a social force. Science as a social force is a means of achieving social justice and a reasonable social order. However, here potneclassical science has not yet returned the former influence on the social dynamics of society that it had in its classical period.

Of course, this is a very general and, to a certain extent, idealized idea of the functions of science in society, which does not take into account its complex interaction with other cultural realities and social institutions, characteristic of scientific concepts. Taking into account this circumstance shows that science, which is one of the main means of solving its problems within the framework of modern technogenic civilization, in any of the societies of this civilization, the limits of its autonomy are quite clearly defined. First of all, the possibilities for the development of science are limited by the amounts of its funding acceptable to society. Nowadays, in developed countries, 2-3% of the gross national product is spent on science.

Scientists are not always free to choose the directions and problems of their research work. They are currently quite strictly determined by the nature of state scientific and technological policy. Science also experiences social pressure when choosing research methods and evaluating the results obtained. And all this while he expects and urgently demands from science a timely solution to the problems facing him in a wide variety of areas of life.

Scientific forces are still, to a certain extent, distracted by confronting the extremes of everyday life and other forms of social consciousness, as well as intra-scientific and pseudo-scientific processes called quasi-(para-, pseudo-, anti-) science.

The phenomenon of quasi-science

As a cultural phenomenon, science arose and developed under the influence of a dominant intention to limit (and even eliminate) the sphere of subjectivity (emotions, prejudices, aesthetic preferences, etc.) both in relation to reality and in its resulting knowledge. This attitude over time put science in opposition to traditional forms of spiritual exploration of the world: religion, art, morality, ordinary common sense, politics, and over time, philosophy in the face of its certain movements. This was especially evident during the formation of experimental mathematical natural science and subsequent times. The ideologists of the new science were well aware of the significant differences in the methods of spiritual mastery of reality in the form of science, on the one hand, and in the forms noted above, on the other. Therefore, they focused on a wise solution - a compromise division of their areas of competence. The most revealing historical evidence of this is the Charter of the Royal Society of London and the contents of its other documents, as well as letters - responses to applicants for discussion by members of the society of problems that go beyond the accepted competencies. “The Royal Society,” noted in a letter to the author of the philosophical and theological work, E. Leichner, “is not interested in knowledge on scholastic and theological matters, since its only task is to cultivate knowledge of nature and useful arts through observation and experiment and expand it for the sake of ensuring safety and the well-being of humanity. These are the limits of the activities of the British Assembly of Philosophers, as defined by the Royal Charter, and its members do not consider it possible to violate these limits."

However, what was justified by the need to protect the nascent experimental and mathematical natural sciences from pressure from traditional structures of the spiritual and social spheres clearly did not work in the future. Especially since the time when the development of science led to a significant transformation of education and the market conditions for goods and services, when it began, in certain periods of social development, to claim to fill the spiritual vacuum and to be the leading spiritual factor in the development of society. Under these conditions, the ranks of its opponents included both traditional forms of spiritual exploration of reality, which arose long ago and independently of science, and forms that were in a certain respect close to science: those that preceded it genetically (astrology, alchemy, cabalism, etc.), as well as those that arose in the wave of her own development (parapsychology, telekinesis, ufology, etc.). The latter significantly differ from traditional forms of spiritual exploration of reality, primarily in that they exist largely due to the development of science and, moreover, strive to use its principles of organization and tools, duplicating its social functions, i.e. very often they do not openly oppose science, but mimic it, claiming to solve the problems of the cutting edge of science.

This kind of phenomenon is classified as para-, quasi-, false, pseudo-science. They have always existed as long as science has existed. However, their scale and character were determined by the sociocultural and socio-political specifics of a particular historical time and place.

What are the specifics of the current manifestations of quasi-science? First of all , in its scale and intensity of propaganda, including by electronic means, in the growing receptivity to it on the part of society, especially during periods of social instability, and in particular, certain layers of the humanitarian intelligentsia, who often evaluate it as higher (in relation to modern science) knowledge. The last thesis is most often supported by a “historical” argument: modern science, with its principles of reproducibility of the result and controllability of ways to obtain it, has existed for only about four hundred years, while magic, occultism, telekinesis and other forms of quasi-science have existed for over forty thousand years, those. since the existence of man.

What are the reasons for the increasing share of quasi-scientific ideas in the public consciousness? Researchers primarily point out the following: the negative consequences of scientific and technological progress; the inappropriately high cost of a number of scientific projects (primarily research in the field of space and high-energy physics); constant increase in the barrier separating the scientific, technical and humanitarian intelligentsia, since the degree of abstraction of theoretical knowledge is constantly increasing and the experimental tools of science are becoming more complex1.

The source (although only one of the types of knowledge related to quasi-science) is scientific knowledge itself. In its vein are being developed concepts that go against the prevailing scientific paradigm. Until a certain time, it is unclear what they are: a set of “crazy” ideas that, over time, can become the basis of a more complex system of scientific knowledge, or a fruitless invention of the fringe? At this time, several criteria have been developed for determining the “quality” of this kind of knowledge. Firstly, scientists receive “anomalous” results, as a rule, in the form of by-products of ordinary scientific research and extremely rarely set themselves the task of radically changing the norms of scientific research and the entire existing system of knowledge, while pseudo-scientific concepts are initially formed for a given global transformational goal without connection with the solution of real disciplinary problems. Secondly, new scientific ideas (for all their originality) have the fundamental ability to fit into the existing system of knowledge and, at least at first, are formulated in terms traditional for this field of research with the obligatory observance of the requirements of the principle of correspondence, while Pseudo-scientific concepts, as a rule, are not bound by such restrictions2. These criteria are not sufficient, but as necessary they can help overcome negative phenomena in the cultural sphere that accompany the development of science.

In line with non-classical philosophical systems, and postmodernism in particular, a number of philosophical concepts are being developed, focused not so much on identifying the general principles of the “logic of science” and the “logics” of myth, religion, occultism, common sense, but on justifying their equality and equivalence in society1. For all the humanistic orientation and theoretical tempting of such constructions, they maintain the status of a subject of discussion only at the cost of very strong methodological assumptions, namely, the rejection of the historical approach to the study of these realities, the refusal to recognize the dominance of “vertical” connections in sociocultural structures and the recognition as effective only “ horizontal" (coordination) connections. This is opposed by an unbiased perception of the history of interaction between compared realities, full of dramatic collisions in the struggle for dominance in spiritual life and their equally historically changeable social functioning.

Questions for self-control

1. What concepts of the genesis of science exist?

2. Which concept of the genesis of science captures the main difference between science and pre-science?

3. What aspects of science must be taken into account in the process of constructing its most general concept?

4. What levels does science as a knowledge system include?

5. In what forms is science organized as a specific activity?

6. What are the main types of scientific research?

7. What is their specificity?

8. In what historical era did science emerge as a social institution?

9. What are the features of science as a productive force?

10. What are the features of science as a form of social consciousness?

11. What are the first scientific programs you know?

12. What is the essence of deductivism and essentialism??

13. What are the basic principles of the probabilistic concept of knowledge?

14. At what time did experimental science begin?

15. What period did disciplinary-organized sciences take shape?

16. What functions of science in society are identified as the main ones?

17. What phenomena and processes in the sphere of spiritual mastery of reality qualify as quasi- (para-, pseudo-, pseudo-) science?

18. What are the specifics of modern quasi-science?

19. During what periods of social evolution are the most intense manifestations of quasi-science observed?

20. What are the main reasons for the increasing share of quasi-scientific ideas in the public consciousness in our time?

21. What are the criteria for distinguishing between science and quasi-science?

22. Are they sufficient?

23. What is the essence of the “historical” argument against science when compared with quasi-science and more ancient forms of spiritual mastery of reality?

Literature

1. Asmus V.F. Ancient philosophy: Textbook. allowance. – 3rd ed., add. – M.: Higher School, 1999. – 400 p.

2. Batkin L.M. Italian Renaissance. Problems and people. – Rosgos.humanit.unit., 1995. – 446 p.

3. In search of a theory of the development of science: Essays on Western European and American concepts of the twentieth century. / Rep. ed. S.R. Mikulinsky, V.S. Chernyak. – M.: Nauka, 1982. – 296 p.

4. Gaidenko P.P. History of modern European philosophy in its connection with science. – M.: 2000. – 455 p.

5. Gaidenko P.P. Evolution of the concept of science. Formation of the first scientific programs. – M.: Nauka, 1980. – 566 p.

6. Gachev G.D. The Book of Surprises or Natural History through the Eyes of Humanists or Images in Science. – M.: Pedagogy, 1991. – 270 p.

7. Science in culture. – M.: Editorial URSS, 1998. – 380 p.

8. The nature of knowledge in the history of science and culture. – St. Petersburg: 2001.

9. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy: In 2 volumes / Translated from English. – M.: MIF, 1993. – 445 p.

10. Sokolov V.V. European philosophy of the XV-XVII centuries: Textbook. allowance. – M.: Higher School, 1984. – 448 p.

11. Stepin V.S. Philosophical anthropology and philosophy of science. – M.: Higher School, 1992. – 191 p.

12. Philosophy and methodology of science. Textbook a manual for students of higher educational institutions / Ed. V.I. Kuptsova. – M.: Aspect Press, 1996. – 551 p.

13. Holton J. Thematic analysis of science / Transl. from English – M.: Progress, 1981. – 383 p. Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient philosophy: Proc. allowance. – M.: Higher School, 1981. – 374 p.

The main functions of science are as follows:

1) educational the function is given by the very essence of science, the main purpose of which is precisely the knowledge of nature, society and man, the rational-theoretical comprehension of the world, the discovery of its laws and patterns. 2) ideological the function is certainly closely related to the first, its main goal is the development of a scientific worldview and a scientific picture of the world, the study of rationalistic aspects of man’s relationship to the world, and the substantiation of a scientific worldview. 3) production, technical and technological the function is designed to rationalize, “retrain” the sphere of material production, ensure its normal functioning and development, technical and technological progress, introduction of innovations into production, new technologies, forms of organization, etc. 4) management and regulatory The function is expressed in the fact that science must develop the ideological, theoretical and methodological foundations of management and regulation, primarily this concerns social phenomena and processes. 5) cultural and educational, The educational function lies mainly in the fact that science is a cultural phenomenon, a noticeable factor in the cultural development of people and education. Her achievements, ideas and recommendations have a noticeable impact on the entire educational process, on the content of curriculum plans, textbooks, on technology, forms and methods of teaching. 6) ideological continuity, the traditional function ensures inheritance, preservation of all achievements of scientific “collective intelligence”, scientific memory, connection of times, continuity of different generations of scientists, 7) practically effective the function, to a certain extent, seems to integrate all other functions of science, characterizes it as a universal transformative social force that is capable of changing the entire society, all its spheres, aspects and relationships. 8) methodological the function is designed to explore the problems of scientific methodology, develop ways, means and methods of scientific knowledge to “equip” scientists with solid and effective research tools; 9) production, reproduction and training of scientific personnel- this function of science, like the previous one, is internally scientific, provides the sphere of scientific production with the necessary specialists, researchers, scientists,

It is obvious that almost all functions of science are interconnected in one way or another.

The functions of science in the life of society, its place in culture and its interaction with other areas of cultural creativity change from century to century.

5. Logical-epistemological approach to the study of science. Positivist tradition in the philosophy of science.

The main aspects of the existence of science. Aspects of science:

science as a system of knowledge (as a specific type of knowledge).

science as a type of activity (as a process of obtaining new knowledge)

science as a social institution

science as a special field and side of culture.

Science as a knowledge system- this is special knowledge obtained and recorded by specific scientific methods. methods and means (analysis, synthesis, abstraction, systemic observation, experiment). The most important forms and components of science as special knowledge: theories, disciplines, areas of research, fields of science (physical, historical, mathematical), scientific laws, hypotheses.

Science as an activity- this is a specific type of cognitive activity with an object, which is set of possible objects (empirical and theoretical). The goal is to produce knowledge about the properties, relationships and patterns of objects. The means of activity are the appropriate methods and procedures of empirical and theoretical research.

Distinctive properties:

objective subjectivity (empirical and/or theoretical)

focus on creativity

general validity

validity (empirical, theoretical)

accuracy of the results obtained

verifiability (empirical, logical)

reproducibility of subject knowledge and its results (fundamentally infinite)

objective truth. Truth (according to Aristotle) is an adequate correspondence of knowledge to the actual relationship of things. Types of truths: subjective truth(this is some knowledge recognized as true as a result of the agreement of a certain group of people), empiricist truth(knowledge that is verified by direct reference to reality), formal logical knowledge(justified by derivation from general theoretical provisions, axioms), pragmatic truth, objective truth.

usefulness (praxeological) - can be practical and theoretical.

Science as a social institution- this is the professionally organized functioning of the scientific community, the effective regulation of relationships among its members, as well as among science, society and the state with the help of a specific system of internal values inherent in a given social structure, with the help of science. technical policy of society and the state, and in addition. With the help of the appropriate system of legislative norms (civil, economic law, etc.).

Value empirics of science as a social structure (social self-esteem of science): universalism, collectivism, selflessness, organizational skepticism, rationalism (in the sense in which it is accepted at this stage of scientific development), emotional neutrality. Positivism is a combination of logical and empirical methods, everything can be obtained by experience.

6. Postpositivist philosophy of science. K. Popper's concept. The problem of the development of knowledge has been especially actively developed since the 60s. XX century, supporters of postpositivism, the current of philosophical and methodological thought of the 20th century, which came in the 60s. to replace neopositivism (logical positivism). Conventionally, we can distinguish two main directions (naturally, showing commonality among themselves): relativistic, represented by Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend; and fallibilist, this group should include primarily Karl Popper and Imre Lakatos. Representatives of the first movement affirm the relativity, conventionality, and situationality of scientific knowledge and pay greater attention to the social factors of the development of science; philosophers of the second - build philosophical concepts based on the thesis about the “fallibility” of scientific knowledge, its instability over time.

Turning to history and the development of science (and not just to the formal structure), representatives of postpositivism began to build various models of this development, considering them as special cases of general evolutionary processes taking place in the world.

Thus, in postpositivism there is a significant change in the problems of philosophical research: if logical positivism focused on the formal analysis of the structure of ready-made scientific knowledge, then postpositivism makes its main problem the understanding of the growth and development of knowledge. In this regard, representatives of postpositivism were forced to turn to the study of the history of the emergence, development and change of scientific ideas and theories. The first such concept was conc.concept of the growth of knowledge by K. Popper. (Fallibilist current. K. Popper: at the origins, the problem of demarcation). Popper considers knowledge (in any form) not only as a ready-made, established system, but also as a changing, developing system. He presented this aspect of the analysis of science in the form of the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. Rejecting agenetism, the anti-historicism of logical positivists in this matter, he believes that the method of constructing artificial model languages is not able to solve the problems associated with the growth of our knowledge. But within its limits, this method is legitimate and necessary. Popper is keenly aware that emphasizing the change of scientific knowledge, its growth and progress, may to some extent contradict the popular ideal of science as a systematic deductive system. This ideal has dominated European epistemology since Euclid.

For Popper, the growth of knowledge is not a repetitive or cumulative process, it is a process of error elimination, “Darwinian selection.” When he speaks of the growth of knowledge, he does not mean the mere accumulation of observations, but the repeated overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement by better and more satisfactory theories. According to Popper, “the growth of knowledge proceeds from old problems to new problems, by means of conjecture and refutation.” At the same time, “the main mechanism for the growth of knowledge remains precisely the mechanism of assumptions and refutations.” In his concept, Popper formulates three basic requirements for the growth of knowledge. Firstly, a new theory must start from a simple, new, fruitful and unifying idea. Secondly, it must be independently verifiable, that is, lead to the representation of phenomena that have not yet been observed. Thirdly, a good theory must withstand some new and rigorous tests.