Stages of statistical research. Statistical research: concept, stages, meaning in statistical analysis
Any statistical study is based on three interrelated stages of work:
1) statistical observation;
2) summary and grouping of observation data;
3) scientific processing and analysis of the summary results. Each subsequent stage of a statistical study can be carried out provided that the previous (preceding) stages of work have been carried out.
Statistical observation is the first stage of statistical research.
Statistical observation- this is a systematic, scientifically organized collection of information about a particular set of social and, in particular, economic phenomena or processes.
Statistical observations are very diverse and differ in the nature of the phenomena being studied, the form of organization, the time of observation, and the completeness of coverage of the phenomena being studied. In this regard, it was carried out classification of statistical observations according to individual characteristics .
1. According to the form of organization statistical observations are divided into reporting and specially organized statistical observations.
Reporting– this is the main organizational form of statistical observation, which boils down to collecting information from enterprises, institutions and organizations about various aspects of their activities on special forms called reports. Reporting is mandatory. Reporting is divided into basic and current depending on the duration of the period for which it is prepared.
Basic reporting also called annual and contains the widest range of indicators covering all aspects of the enterprise’s activities.
Current reporting presented throughout the year for periods of varying duration.
However, there are data that are fundamentally impossible to obtain from reporting and data that are inappropriate to include in it. It is to obtain these two types of data that specially organized statistical observations are used - various types of surveys and censuses.
Statistical surveys- these are specially organized observations in which the studied set of phenomena is observed over a certain period of time.
Census– this is a form of specially organized statistical observation in which the studied set of phenomena is observed on some date (at some moment).
2. Based on time All statistical observations are divided into continuous and discontinuous.
Continuous (current) statistical observation- This is an observation that is carried out continuously over time. With this type of observation, individual phenomena, facts, and events are recorded as they occur.
Intermittent statistical observation– this is an observation in which the observed phenomena, facts, events are recorded not continuously, but through periods of time of equal or unequal duration. There are two types of continuous monitoring – periodic and one-time. Periodic called discontinuous observation, which is carried out over periods of time of equal duration. One-time is called observation that is carried out over periods of time of unequal duration or of a one-time nature.
3. Based on the completeness of coverage of the studied mass phenomena, facts, events, statistical observations are divided into continuous and non-continuous, or partial.
Continuous observation aims to take into account all, without exception, phenomena, facts, events that form the population under study.
Partial observation aims to take into account only a certain part of the phenomena, facts, events that form the population under study.
Statistical methodology– a system of techniques, methods and methods aimed at studying quantitative patterns that manifest themselves in the structure, dynamics and interrelations of socio-economic phenomena. The methodology is basis of statistical research.
Stages of statistical research:
1. statistical observation, or collection of information;
2. summary and grouping of statistical observation results, or information processing;
3. analysis of the information received.
Statistical observation- this is a massive, systematic, scientifically organized observation of the phenomena of social and economic life, which consists of recording selected characteristics of each unit of the population.
Process conducting statistical observation includes the following steps:
1) preparation of observation;
2) conducting mass data collection;
3) preparing data for automated processing;
4) development of proposals to improve statistical observation.
Summary– a set of sequential operations to summarize statistical observation data to characterize the statistical population as a whole and its individual parts (calculation of subtotals and totals). Grouping – delimitation of the general statistical population into groups of qualitatively homogeneous units. The results of the statistical summary and grouping are presented in the form of statistical tables.
Analysis or research the essence of the phenomena being studied, explores the structure, dynamics and relationships of social phenomena and processes.
Has the following stages:
1) statement of facts and their assessment;
2) establishing the characteristic features and causes of each phenomenon;
3) comparison of one phenomenon with others (including with a standard);
4) formulation of hypotheses, conclusions and proposals.
5) Statistical testing of the hypotheses using special statistical indicators
| 38.Statistical methods of forecasting based on indicators of a series of dynamics. The forecasting process, based on statistical methods, is divided into two stages. First, inductive, consists in summarizing data observed over a more or less long period of time, and in presenting the corresponding statistical patterns in the form of a model. A statistical model is obtained either in the form of an analytically expressed development trend, or in the form of an equation of dependence on one or more factor-arguments. In a number of cases - when studying complex sets of economic indicators - they resort to the development of so-called interdependent systems of equations, again consisting mainly of equations characterizing statistical dependencies. The process of constructing and applying a statistical model for forecasting, whatever its form, necessarily includes choosing the form of an equation that describes the dynamics or interrelation of phenomena, and estimating its parameters using one method or another. The second stage, the forecast itself, is deductive. At this stage, based on the found statistical patterns, the expected value of the predicted characteristic is determined. |
It should be emphasized that the results obtained cannot be considered as something final. When assessing and using them, factors, conditions or limitations that were not taken into account when developing the statistical model must be taken into account, and the discovered statistical characteristics must be adjusted in accordance with the expected change in the circumstances of their formation. In short, predictive estimates found using statistical methods are important material, which, however, must be critically interpreted. In this case, the main thing is to take into account possible changes in the very trends in the development of economic phenomena and objects
39.Statistical tables, their types, components and rules for constructing tables. A statistical table is a form of the most rational presentation of the numerical (digital) data obtained as a result of a statistical summary and grouping. In appearance, it is a combination of vertical and horizontal lines, containing side and top headings. The statistical table contains a subject and a predicate.
The subject of the table represents the statistical population referred to in the table, i.e., a list of individual or all units of the population or their groups. Most often, the subject is placed on the left side of the table and contains a list of rows.
| 41.STRUCTURAL AVERAGE MODE AND ITS DEFINITION. The value of the average is determined by all values of the characteristic found in a given row of the distribution. There are such structural averages as: (1) mode (2) median (3) quartile (4) decile (5) percentile Mode is the most common variant of the series. Fashion is used, for example, in determining the size of clothes and shoes that are most in demand among customers. The mode for a discrete series is the one with the highest frequency. When calculating the mode for an interval variation series, you must first determine the modal interval (based on the maximum frequency), and then the value of the modal value of the attribute using the formula: where: |
The predicate of the table is the indicators that are used to characterize the phenomenon displayed in the table.
If the subject of a table contains a simple list of some objects, the table is called simple. The subject of a simple table does not contain any groupings of statistical data. If the subject of a simple table contains a list of territories, then such a table is called territorial.
A simple table contains only descriptive information and has limited analytical capabilities. An in-depth analysis of the population under study and the relationships between characteristics involves the construction of more complex tables - group and combinational.
Group tables contain the subject grouping of units of the object of observation according to one essential characteristic. The simplest type of group table are tables that present distribution rows. A group table can be more complex if the predicate contains not only the number of units in each group, but also a number of other important indicators that quantitatively and qualitatively characterize the groups of the subject. Such tables are often used to compare general indicators by group, which allows certain practical conclusions to be drawn.
Combination tables are statistical tables whose subject groups of units, formed according to one characteristic, are divided into subgroups according to one or more characteristics. Unlike simple and group tables, combinational tables allow you to trace the dependence of the indicators of the predicate on several features that formed the basis of the combinational grouping in the subject.
Basic rules for constructing statistical tables:
1) the title must reflect the object, sign, time and place of the event;
2) columns and lines should be numbered;
3) columns and lines must contain units of measurement;
4) the information compared during the analysis is placed in adjacent columns (or one under the other);
5) the numbers in the table are placed in the middle of the column, strictly one below the other; It is advisable to round numbers with the same degree of accuracy;
6) the absence of data is indicated by a multiplication sign (), if this position does not need to be filled out, the absence of information is indicated by an ellipsis (...), or n.d., or n. St., in the absence of a phenomenon, a dash sign (-) is placed;
7) to display very small numbers, use the notation 0.0 or 0.00; if the number is obtained on the basis of conditional calculations, then it is taken in brackets, doubtful numbers are accompanied by a question mark, and preliminary numbers are accompanied by a sign (*).
40.Structural average median and its definition. Median- this is the numerical value of a characteristic for that unit of the population that is in the middle of the ranked series (built in ascending or descending order of the values of the characteristic being studied). Median sometimes called middle option, because it divides the aggregate into two equal parts so that on both sides there are the same number of units of the aggregate. If all units of a series are assigned serial numbers, then the serial number of the median will be determined by the formula (n+1): 2 for series, where n – odd. If the row with even number of units, then median will be the average value between two neighboring options, determined by the formula: n:2, (n+1):2, (n:2)+1.
In discrete variation series with an odd number of aggregate units, this is a specific numerical value in the middle of the series.
Finding the median in interval variation series requires a preliminary determination of the interval in which the median is located, i.e. median interval– this interval is characterized by the fact that its cumulative (accumulated) frequency is equal to half the sum or exceeds the half sum of all frequencies of the series.
X Me - lower limit of the median interval
h Me is the value of the median interval;
S Me-1 is the sum of the accumulated frequencies of the interval preceding the median interval;
- f Me is the local frequency of the median interval.
Frequency of the interval following the modal
42.The essence and meaning of graphs, their main elements. In statistics schedule called visual image Expression of statistical quantities and their relationships using geometric points, lines, shapes, or geographic maps.
Charts give presentation of statistical data greater visibility than tables, expressiveness, facilitate their perception and analysis. Allows you to visually assess the nature of the phenomenon being studied, its inherent patterns, development trends, relationships with other indicators, and the geographic resolution of the phenomena being studied. Even in ancient times, the Chinese said that one picture is worth a thousand words. Whenever possible, it is recommended to always start analyzing statistical data with their graphical representation. The graph allows you to immediately get a general idea of the entire set of statistical indicators. The graphical method of analysis acts as a logical continuation of the tabular method and serves the purpose of obtaining general statistical characteristics of processes characteristic of mass phenomena.
Using graphical images of statistical data p tasks are being solved statistical research:
1) a visual representation of the magnitude of indicators (phenomena) in comparison with each other;
2) characteristics of the structure of a phenomenon;
3) change of the phenomenon over time;
4) progress in implementing the plan;
5) the dependence of changes in one phenomenon on changes in another;
6) the prevalence or distribution of any quantities across the territory
In each graph, the following are identified (distinguished): essential elements:
- 1) spatial reference points (coordinate system);
- 2) graphic image;
- 3) graph field;
- 4) scale guidelines;
- 5) explication of the schedule;
- 6) name of the schedule
43. The essence and meaning of average values. average value– a generalized characteristic of the level of attribute values, obtained per unit of the population. The average value is calculated for characteristics that are qualitatively homogeneous and different only quantitatively, which are inherent in all phenomena in a given population.
Average values are general (reflect the population as a whole) and group (reflect the features of the groups). Divided into 2 categories – power and structural .
To power include – harmonic mean, geometric mean, arithmetic mean, quadratic mean. The most common one is arithmetic average. Average harmonic used as the inverse of arithmetic mean. Average square used when calculating variation indicators, avg. geometric– when analyzing dynamics.
To structural include mode and median. Fashion– the value of the studied characteristic with the highest frequency. Median– the value of the attribute that falls in the middle of the ranked series. Fashion is used in commercial practice to study consumer demand and record prices. In a discrete series, mode is the variant with the highest frequency. In an interval variation series, the mode is considered to be the central variant of the interval, which has the highest frequency. Using the median allows you to get more accurate results than using other forms of averages. The property of the median is that the sum of the absolute deviations of the characteristic values from the median is less than from any other value. The order of finding the median in the interval variation series is as follows: we arrange the individual values of the characteristic according to ranking; we determine the accumulated frequencies for a given ranked series; Using the accumulated frequency data, we find the median interval.
Statistical work, as a rule, is built in the form of a number of successive stages, or stages (Fig. 2.6.). However, this scheme is not a once and for all established template, and in the daily practice of healthcare institutions, where all of the listed stages are carried out, it can be modified depending on the tasks and goals of the study. Thus, filling out accounting documents corresponds to the stage of statistical observation. Drawing up periodic reports - the stage of statistical summary and grouping of materials. Analysis of the activities of a medical institution consists of compiling text reports, explanatory notes and market reviews that provide a scientific and medical interpretation and explanation of digital data.
Stages of statistical research
Any properly organized statistical work is built according to the same type of scheme, equivalent in its main stages and stages. A sanitary-statistical study consists, as already noted, of four successive stages, which, in turn, break down into a number of separate statistical operations.
First stage represents preparatory work, which includes drawing up a pre-thought-out, clear plan and research program. The result of the entire study as a whole largely depends on the thoroughness and thoroughness of the preparatory work.
Second phase- this is a statistical observation or collection of materials, which consists in recording individual phenomena, individual facts, their characteristics and elements. In medical institutions, this stage is carried out in the form of filling out certain accounting documents.
Third stage is a statistical (tabular) summary and grouping of the received materials, i.e. the first counting operation for processing “statistical raw materials”. Thus, a summary consists of systematizing and summarizing individual records and summing up the results in the form of statistical tables. A practical example of a summary would be reports from medical institutions.
Fourth stage- counting processing and analysis of materials. It consists in obtaining absolute numbers of derived quantities, their qualitative analysis and scientific and medical interpretation (comparison with other materials, results and conclusions, literary and graphic design, publication). The practical expression of analysis is the preparation of an explanatory note, i.e. text part of the report, summary analytical or market overview.
The identification by some authors of three stages (combining the first two) or expansion to five stages (separation of counting processing and analysis) is not significant. You can accept a scheme with any number of stages, because What is important is not their number, but continuity, inextricable connection, strict sequence, interdependence and conditionality, occurring on the basis of correct grouping. Mistakes made in one link can negate all subsequent work.
Preparatory work and its content. The task of the preparatory work is to draw up a program and research plan. The organizational plan is outlined as a whole and in individual stages. The most important direction in this case is to determine the purpose of the study, the plan and program of observation and summary.
The individual elements of the first stage can be presented in a certain sequence:
Establishing the purpose and objectives of the study, i.e. formulation of theoretical principles and determination of the real needs that necessitated this research, its limits and content.
Thus, the formulation “study of population morbidity” is unclear and very vague, therefore it is necessary to clarify the types of diseases to be studied (general, occupational, with temporary disability, etc.), the purpose of the work (clarification of the impact of working conditions, living conditions on the dental health of the population , quality of treatment and preventive or sanitary and anti-epidemic measures, etc.).
The researcher must first familiarize himself in detail with the essence of the issue and with published literary or documentary sources.
Definition of the object of observation, i.e. the main population of persons or phenomena being studied, its size and nature. The object of observation - who or what is subject to research - is, as a rule, certain groups of people (workers, employees, schoolchildren, conscripts, etc.). The objects can also be water supply sources, dormitories, commercial enterprises and other institutions subject to sanitary supervision; in special experimental work - animals and plants. Thus, the object of observation can be people, objects, phenomena, events, etc.
Determining the scope of observation. The question of the amount of material (patients, experiments, experimental animals) is related to the degree of homogeneity of the population being studied. The more homogeneous the population, the fewer observations will be required. In addition to the expected number of observations, the concept of scope of work also includes the degree of detail of the study, i.e. number of registered features.
One of the most important sections of the preparatory work is the establishment of the unit of observation, or the primary case of counting, i.e. those persons, objects or phenomena that would become an element of counting, a kind of “atom” of the population being studied, which bears its characteristics.
The establishment of a unified unit of observation ensures the comparability of materials, the ability to “compare comparable things,” because comparison is the soul of statistics, its basis. A clear definition of the unit of observation is necessary for the accuracy and homogeneity of the collected materials and for the correctness of subsequent generalizations. The content of the observation unit is determined by the goals and objectives of the study. For example, when studying different types of morbidity, each of them has its own unit of observation.
Even seemingly simple questions included in the census form require clarification, such as literacy (how to count a person who can read but cannot write), marital status (registered or actual marriage), nationality (child of parents of different nationalities), etc. .P.
Clarifications are also needed when recording doctors (whether to include those working outside their specialty or pensioners), when censusing the housing stock (what is considered an apartment); when determining surgical intervention (whether abortion, biopsy, skin graft, etc. are considered an operation). For example, if you ask the question “How is your dental health?” several people, one will evaluate it as bad, another as good, a third as satisfactory, etc. But all these are subjective assessments, and an objective study of the dental health of the same individuals can lead to the same assessments of dental health in all subjects or to other assessments that differ from the subjective ones.
The subject of observation requires serious attention, i.e. these are the organizers and participants of the work. It is necessary to provide in advance the strength and qualifications of the personnel filling out and developing documentation, monitoring and being responsible for collecting material. Moreover, the number of participants at different stages of work may change. The scope and program of the research often depend on the preparedness and qualifications of the participants.
The organizational or organizational and technical plan for observation also includes questions about the place and time of observation. The place of observation is the administrative-territorial boundaries: a village or several villages (stationary settlements with the presence of doctors), an administrative district, a city or its district, an edge, a region, a republic. In medical-geographical studies, devoted in particular to issues of regional pathology, certain areas are selected (for example, studying the physical development of children in the Arctic, the spread of dental anomalies among residents of Sakhalin, the spread of thyroid pathology among adolescents in the Magadan region). Research time, i.e. specific terms are determined both for the observation period and for the entire study as a whole (both development and analysis). Depending on the objectives of the study, its period is planned. For example, a study over the past 5 years or from January 1 of the next year, for a certain season (when studying the effectiveness of a summer health campaign or spa treatment). Sometimes the question of timing is closely related to the research method (anamnestic, follow-up, etc.). Along with the usual one-time “cross-sectional” studies over a short period of time, so-called “longitudinal” or cohort studies are used, i.e. long-term observations of the same population group (“cohort”).
The sources of materials should also be indicated. Most often they are primary medical records: “Statistical coupon” (registration form No. 25-2/u), “Card of a person leaving the hospital” (registration form No. 066/u), “Emergency notification of an infectious disease, food, acute occupational poisoning" (registration form No. 058/u) and others. Often these are specially designed documents. Sometimes the research is based on reporting documents. But because Since they contain ready-made and, moreover, limited groupings, they are of little use for in-depth analysis. For some works, literary sources such as bulletins of the World Health Organization (WHO) and other UN bodies, official reference publications, etc. are used.
In terms of observation, it is necessary to provide for various forms of practical implementation of the research results (drawing up a report and an explanatory note to it, a summary analytical review, a report, a publication, an article, a brochure, a monograph, a reference book). To summarize, an observation plan must answer the questions: what, where, when, by whom, and how will be studied. Speaking about the observation plan and program, it must be emphasized that the list of data to be collected is determined by the observation program, and the order of implementation of the program is established by the observation plan.
The research program includes several parts devoted to the choice of goal, tasks to achieve it, research methods, methods of observation, determination of the unit of observation and collection of relevant information.
In practice, the list of program issues and their individual characteristics is expressed in the form of an accounting and statistical document, mainly of the card type (form, form, questionnaire) and less often of the list type (magazine, statement, account book). Generally accepted officially valid medical documents of the same type are approved by the relevant authorities (registration - by the Ministry of Health, reporting - by the State Committee of Statistics, etc.).
An extremely important stage of work, which is of exceptional importance, is the creation of special programs for in-depth research.
Simultaneously with the research program, a plan and program for the upcoming summary (projects and layouts of worksheet) are drawn up. The preparation of the program is preceded by the theoretical development of the problem and practical tasks, the creation of working hypotheses, pathogenetic groupings, as well as the development of a system of indicators for future analysis. The English statistician A. Bradford Hill (1958) points out: “The main and decisive step in conducting special surveys is the preparation of an accounting form. No matter how much attention you give to this task, it can never be too much.”
When moving to mechanized accounting and development, space should be left for markup codes, and a clear formulation of questions and their number should be provided. Answers must be specific and relevant to specific conditions (particularly location and time).
Example of a statistical research program in pediatrics
There are certain rules for drawing up a statistical map.
Firstly, it should not be overloaded. It is necessary to include only the necessary and necessary questions that will be needed in subsequent development.
Secondly, questions must be clearly and precisely formulated and not cause different interpretations (and sometimes mistrust or fear). Examples of unclear formulations include “presumed site of infection” (either the entrance gate of infection, or the area), “nutrition of an ulcer patient” (it is unclear whether this means diet or fatness, “low nutrition”).
Thirdly, the answers must be clear and categorical (yes, no, number, diagnosis). It's even better if they can be indicated with a hint for underlining.
Fourthly, the construction of the program involves coordination and mutual control of issues (diagnosis, gender, age, profession and work experience, year of graduation, etc.).
A necessary addition to the statistical map is instructions (sometimes printed on the map) explaining the meaning of terms, the procedure for filling out and maintaining documents using specific examples.
There are no trifles in statistics, and the condensed nature of the questions especially emphasizes this. N.I. Pirogov pointed out the importance of the brevity of the statistical program: “There is no need to go into detail about each subject: one word entered in the column will sometimes tell everything you need to know.” N.I. Pirogov also wrote that statisticians must act according to a single definite plan.
Sometimes a trial run on a limited scale is initially conducted to test the program and collection methodology.
A very important prerequisite for the success of the research is a collective discussion of the plan and program (and subsequently also the results) with interested and competent persons, as well as with the participants in the work.
Modern statistical studies can be extensive and large-scale. In any case, it is advisable to estimate in advance the amount of work to be done and the costs required for this. Some of the latter can be covered in certain cases from traditional sources (for example, the salaries of medical workers), but some may require special allocations and the allocation of additional human and material resources.
A quantitative description of socio-economic processes in direct connection with their qualitative essence in the system of social production is impossible without in-depth statistical research. The use of various methods and techniques of statistical methodology presupposes the availability of comprehensive and reliable information about the object being studied. The study of mass social phenomena includes the stages of collecting statistical information and its primary processing, information and grouping of observation results into certain aggregates, generalization and analysis of the received materials.
At the first stage of statistical research, primary statistical data, or initial statistical information, is formed, which is the foundation of the future statistical building. For a building to be durable, its foundation must be sound and of high quality. If an error is made during the collection of primary statistical data or the material turns out to be of poor quality, this will affect the correctness and reliability of both theoretical and practical conclusions. Therefore, statistical observation from the initial to the final stage - obtaining final materials - must be carefully thought out and clearly organized.
Statistical observation provides the source material for generalization, the beginning of which is a summary. If during statistical observation about each of its units information is received that characterizes it from many aspects, then these summaries characterize the entire statistical totality and its individual parts. At this stage, the population is divided according to signs of difference and united according to signs of similarity, and total indicators are calculated for groups and as a whole. Using the grouping method, the phenomena being studied are divided into the most important types, characteristic groups and subgroups according to essential characteristics. With the help of groupings, populations that are qualitatively homogeneous in significant respects are limited, which is a prerequisite for the definition and application of generalizing indicators.
At the final stage of the analysis, using general indicators, relative and average values are calculated, a summary assessment of the variation of characteristics is given, the dynamics of phenomena are characterized, indices and balance sheets are used. Indicators are calculated that characterize the closeness of connections in changes in characteristics. For the purpose of the most rational and visual presentation of digital material, it is presented in the form of tables and graphs.
Concept of statistical observation
Stat. The research consists of 3 main stages:
1. Stat. observation
2. Primary processing, summary and grouping of observation results
3. Analysis of the obtained summary results
The observation process includes the following. stages:
1. Preparation of observation
2. Conducting mass data collection
3. Data preparation and processing for automated processing
4. Development of proposals for improving hundredth observation
It should be noted that the further results of analysis and quality depend on the completeness and quality of the material collected during the observation process.
15. Methodological issues of organizing statistics. observations.
Stat. observation should begin with a precise formulation of its goals and specific tasks. The following are defined:
Object and unit of observation
Program is being developed
Select the type and method of observation
Under the object stat. observation is understood as something. statistical totality in which the studied social ecology takes place. phenomena and processes
(N: sov-t – p/p
Persons living on def. territories
Students, training in universities)
Observation unit is called a component of objects of observation that is a carrier of signs that are subject to registration (department no., subdivision, department of students, people)
It is necessary to distinguish observation units from reporting units under the cat. understood by subjects who provide information about the unit of observation (often these concepts coincide)
An observation program is a list of issues on which information is collected or a list of signs and indicators to be registered.
The observation program is drawn up in the form of a statistical form, form, questionnaire, questionnaire or census form, etc., where primary research is entered.
The key issue when organizing observation is phenomena. the question of the place and time of its conduct depends mainly on the purpose of the study.
Choosing the location of the observation def. tasks and goals of the study (for which group they want to obtain data, they study it)
The choice of time is included in the definition of the observation period and the critical moment of observation.
Observation period – the time during which registration must be carried out.
The critical observation date is the date as of which information is reported.
The critical moment is the point in time at which the observed facts are recorded.
Their differences are explained and often during the observation period. If it lasts long enough, during this time certain changes in the totality may occur, cat. needs to be reflected on others. Therefore, the results of observations. fixed as of the critical moment. The changes that have taken place are not learned in the future.
A critical moment is like a snapshot of a population (or a study of a population)
As a rule, the critical moment is tied to the start date of the work.
Forms, types, methods of stat. observations
Forms.
1. Stat. reporting is an organizational form in which observation units provide information about their activities in the form of forms, regulatory apparatus.
The peculiarity of reporting is that it must be justified, enforceable and legally confirmed by the signature of the manager or responsible person.
2. Specially organized observation is the most striking and simple example of this form of observation of phenomena. census. The census is usually carried out at regular intervals, simultaneously throughout the entire study area at the same time.
Russian statistical bodies conduct censuses of the population of certain types of subsistence and organizations, material resources, perennial plantings, public health construction objects, etc.
4. Register form of observation - based on maintaining a statistical register. In the register each unit of observation is characterized by a number of indicators. In domestic statistical practice, the most widespread are the US-I registers and the sub-registers.
Population registration is carried out by the Civil Registry Office
Registration - USRPO led.org. statistics.
Kinds.
can be divided into groups according to the following. signs:
a) by registration time
b) by coverage of units of society
By time reg. they are:
Current (continuous)
Intermittent (periodic and one-time)
At current obs. changes in phenomena and processes are recorded as they occur (registration of birth, death, marriage, divorce, etc.)
Periodic obs. carried out through def. time intervals (N population census every 10 years)
One-time obs. carried out either not regularly, or only once (referendum)
By coverage units. Sov-ti stat-e observ. there are:
Solid
Not continuous
Continuous observation is a survey of all units of society
Continuous observation assumes that only part of the research is subject to observation.
There are several types of non-continuous observation:
Basic method array
Selective (on your own)
Monographic
This method is characterized by the fact that, as a rule, the most creatures are selected, usually the largest units. sov-ti in the cat. center means. part of all the signs.
With monographic observation, careful an. are subject to dept. units study owls or maybe or typical for a given Soviet unit. or presenting themselves as new varieties of phenomena.
Multi-observation carried out with the aim of identifying or emerging trends in the development of this phenomenon.
Ways
Direct observation
Documentary observation
Directly called such obs. with cat The registrars themselves, by immediately measuring, counting, restraining the fact that is subject to registration, and on this basis make an entry in the form.
Documentary method of observation. based on the use of various documents as sources of information, usually accounting records (i.e. statistical reporting)
A survey is a method of persuasion with a cat. the necessary information will be obtained from the words of the respondent (i.e., the person being interviewed) (oral, correspondent, questionnaire, personal, etc.)
The result of the first stage of statistical research - statistical observation - is information characterizing each unit of the statistical population. However, the ability to reflect patterns and trends in the dynamics of the phenomena being studied using even the most complete characterization of individual facts is limited. Such data is obtained only as a result of statistical summaries. A summary is the arrangement, systematization and generalization of statistical data obtained during statistical observation. Only proper processing of statistical material makes it possible to identify the essence of socio-economic phenomena, the characteristic features and essential features of individual types, and to discover patterns and trends in their development. There are simple and group reports, or reports in the narrow and broad sense. A simple summary is the calculation of the overall results in groups and subgroups and the presentation of this material in tables. As a result of a simple summary of statistical data, it is possible to determine the number of enterprises, the total number of personnel, and the volume of products produced in monetary terms. These overall results are primarily for informational purposes. They provide a generalized characteristic of the population in the form of absolute values.
Group summary, or summary in a broad sense, is a complex process of multilateral processing of primary statistical data, i.e. data obtained as a result of observation. It includes grouping statistical data, developing a system of indicators to characterize groups, calculating group and overall results, and calculating generalizing indicators. The task of the statistical summary as the second stage of statistical research is to obtain general indicators for information, reference and analytical purposes. The summary of mass statistical data is carried out according to a pre-developed program and plan. During the program development process, the subject and predicate of the summary are determined. The subject is the object of study, divided into groups and subgroups. Predicate - indicators that characterize the subject of the summary. The summary program is determined by the objectives of the statistical study.
The statistical summary is carried out according to a pre-drawn plan. In terms of summaries, questions are addressed about how to carry out the work of summarizing information - manually or mechanically, and about the sequence of individual summation operations. The deadlines for completing each stage and the summary as a whole are established, as well as methods for presenting the results of the summary. These can be distribution series, statistical tables and statistical graphs.
