Does not apply to methods of the theoretical level of cognition. Training of methodological scientists as the most important task of education

ABSTRACT

ON THE TOPIC:

"EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE"

BRIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

As noted above, there are empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.
The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by direct research into actually existing, sensory objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the obtained factual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge - as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical laws.
The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) stage of cognition. At this level, the scientist operates only with theoretical (ideal, symbolic) objects. Also at this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, and patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are revealed. The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge.
Considering theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones include: problem, hypothesis and theory.
A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is something that has not yet been known by man, but that needs to be known. In other words, this is knowledge about ignorance, a question that arose in the course of cognition and requires an answer. solutions.
Scientific problems should be distinguished from non-scientific (pseudo-problems), for example, the problem of creating a perpetual motion machine. The solution to a specific problem is an essential moment in the development of knowledge, during which new problems arise, as well as new problems, certain conceptual ideas, including hypotheses, are put forward.
A hypothesis is a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof. Hypothetical knowledge is probable, not reliable, and requires verification and justification. In the course of proving the put forward hypotheses, some of them become a true theory, others are modified, clarified and specified, turning into delusions if the test gives a negative result.
The decisive test of the truth of a hypothesis is practice (the logical criterion of truth plays an auxiliary role in this case). A tested and proven hypothesis becomes a reliable truth and becomes a scientific theory.
Theory is the most developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality. Examples of this form of knowledge are Newton's classical mechanics, Darwin's evolutionary theory, Einstein's theory of relativity, the theory of self-organizing integral systems (synergetics), etc.
In practice, scientific knowledge is successfully implemented only when people are convinced of its truth. Without turning an idea into a personal conviction, a person’s faith, successful practical implementation of theoretical ideas is impossible.
Each level of scientific knowledge is characterized by its own subject, means and methods of research. A description of some methods of scientific knowledge characteristic of these levels is given in paragraphs 2 – 4.

EMPIRICAL METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Before we begin, I would like to note that the concept of method (from the Greek word “methodos” - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality.
The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which he can achieve the intended goal. Mastery of a method means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.
Some methods are used only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical level (idealization, formalization), and some (for example modeling) - at both the empirical and theoretical levels.
The main methods of the empirical level of scientific knowledge, as noted above, are: scientific observation, measurement and experiment.

Scientific observation

Observation is a method of studying an object without any intervention in the object of study on the part of the scientist, who is the subject of knowledge. The object is in its natural conditions, and the researcher contemplates it either only with the help of his senses, or with the help of instruments, installations or automated observation systems.
Scientific observation (as opposed to ordinary, everyday observations) is characterized by a number of features:
- purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the stated research problem, and the observer’s attention should be fixed only on phenomena related to this task);
- systematic (observation must be carried out strictly according to a plan drawn up based on the research objective);
- activity (the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon, drawing on his knowledge and experience, using various technical means of observation).
We can talk about the existence of two extreme trends in the philosophy of observation. These are phenomenalism and noumenalism. Phenomenalism can be called a philosophy of observation that states that only what is perceived by the external senses - sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch - can be observed. And only this can be considered scientific. Everything else must be expelled from scientific knowledge. On the contrary, noumenalism (from the Latin noumen - essence) asserts the possibility of observation not only on the basis of external, but also internal senses - intuition, intellectual contemplation, introspection. It is thus assumed that a person has special internal senses that allow him to directly observe a deeper layer of existence hidden behind the data of external perception.
Apparently, both of these directions are extreme positions, between which the real process of scientific observation lies.
According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct or indirect.
During direct observations, certain properties and aspects of an object are reflected and perceived by human senses. Observations of this kind have yielded a lot of useful information in the history of science. It is known, for example, that observations of the positions of planets and stars in the sky, carried out over more than twenty years by Tycho Brahe with an accuracy unsurpassed by the naked eye, were the empirical basis for Kepler’s discovery of his famous laws.
Although direct observation continues to play an important role in modern science, most often scientific observation is indirect, that is, carried out using certain technical means. The emergence and development of such means largely determined the enormous expansion of the capabilities of the observation method that has occurred over the past four centuries.
The development of modern natural science is associated with the increasing role of so-called indirect observations. Thus, objects and phenomena studied by nuclear physics cannot be directly observed either with the help of human senses or with the help of the most advanced instruments. For example, when studying the properties of charged particles using a cloud chamber, these particles are perceived by the researcher indirectly - by such visible manifestations as the formation of tracks consisting of many droplets of liquid.
From all of the above, it follows that observation is a very important method of empirical knowledge, ensuring the collection of extensive information about the world around us. As the history of science shows, when used correctly, this method turns out to be very fruitful.

Experiment

An experiment is a method of studying an object by immersing it in an artificial situation using an experimental setup or creating artificial conditions, which allows one to identify aspects of interest to the scientist in the object. An experiment involves both measurement and observation. At the same time, it has a number of important, unique features.
Firstly, an experiment allows you to study an object in a “purified” form, that is, eliminate all kinds of side factors and layers that complicate the research process.
Secondly, during the experiment the object can be placed in some artificial, in particular, extreme conditions. In such artificially created conditions, it is possible to discover surprising and sometimes unexpected properties of objects and thereby more deeply comprehend their essence.
Thirdly, when studying a process, an experimenter can intervene in it and actively influence its course.
Fourth, an important advantage of many experiments is their reproducibility. This means that the experimental conditions, and accordingly the observations and measurements carried out during this process, can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.
In modern science, many experiments require special organization, planning and automation.
There are many different types of experiments, for example, direct (in which the influence is carried out directly on the object of study) and model (the object is replaced in the experiment by a model), field (the experiment is carried out in natural conditions for the object) and laboratory (the object is studied in an artificially created environment) . By purpose, one can distinguish exploratory (when the influence of some factor on the object of study is studied), measurement (a complex measurement of the object is carried out), and testing (in this case, hypotheses are tested and selected) experiments. By methods, one can distinguish experiments conducted on the basis of the trial and error method (random tests are made, unsuccessful samples are discarded based on errors), using a certain algorithm, carried out using the “black box” method (when, based on knowledge of the function, a certain structure of the object is assumed) or “white box” (on the contrary, they move from a known structure to a hypothesis about the function of an object).

THEORETICAL METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Theoretical methods of scientific knowledge are divided into general methods of knowledge of reality and specific methods of theoretical knowledge.
General methods of understanding reality include: induction, deduction, analogy, comparison, generalization, abstraction, etc.
Specific methods of theoretical knowledge in science include: idealization, interpretation, thought experiment, machine computational experiment, axiomatic method and genetic method of theory construction, etc.
Let us consider in more detail such theoretical methods of scientific knowledge as: abstraction, idealization and formalization.

Abstraction

Science operates with scientific abstractions that are expressed in scientific concepts. They are the result of a process of abstraction. Abstraction is the process of abstraction from certain aspects, properties or connections of the object being studied in order to highlight essential and regular features. In the process of abstraction, there is a departure (ascent) from sensually perceived concrete objects (with all their properties, sides, etc.) to abstract ideas about them reproduced in thinking.
In scientific knowledge, for example, abstractions of identification and isolating abstractions are widely used. Abstraction of identification is a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects (while abstracting from a number of individual properties, characteristics of these objects) and combining them into a special group. An example is the grouping of the entire set of plants and animals living on our planet into special species, genera, orders, etc. Isolating abstraction is obtained by isolating certain properties and relationships inextricably linked with objects of the material world into independent entities (“stability” ", "solubility", "electrical conductivity", etc.).
The formation of scientific abstractions and general theoretical principles is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but is only a means of deeper, more comprehensive knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, further movement (ascent) of knowledge from the achieved abstract back to the concrete is necessary. The knowledge about the concrete obtained at this stage of research will be qualitatively different compared to that which was available at the stage of sensory cognition. In other words, the concrete at the beginning of the process of cognition (sensory-concrete, which is its starting point) and the concrete, comprehended at the end of the cognitive process (it is called logical-concrete, emphasizing the role of abstract thinking in its comprehension) are fundamentally different from each other.

T.P. reflects phenomena and processes from their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational processing of empirical knowledge data. Task: achieving objective truth in all its specificity and completeness of content.

Characteristic features: 1. predominance of the rational moment– concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking; sensory cognition is the subordinate aspect; 2. self-focus(study of the process of cognition itself, its forms, techniques, conceptual apparatus).

Structural Components T.P.: problem(a question that requires an answer), a hypothesis (an assumption made on the basis of a number of facts and requiring verification), theory(the most complex and developed form of scientific knowledge, provides a holistic explanation of the phenomena of reality). The generation of theories is the ultimate goal of research. The quintessence of the theory - law. It expresses the essential, deep connections of the object. The formulation of laws is one of the main tasks of science. Theoretical knowledge is most adequately reflected in thinking(an active process of a generalized and indirect reflection of reality), and here the path passes from thinking within an established framework, according to a model, to increasing isolation, a creative understanding of the phenomenon under study. The main ways of reflecting the surrounding reality in thinking are the concept (reflects the general, essential aspects of the object), judgment (reflects the individual characteristics of the object); inference (a logical chain that gives rise to new knowledge). With all the differences, e. etc. levels of scientific knowledge connected. Evolution. research identifying new data through experiments and observations, stimulates theoretical knowledge(which generalizes and explains them, poses new, more complex tasks for them). On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing new content on the basis of empirics, opens up new, broader horizons for economics. knowledge, orients and guides him in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of his methods and means.

Methods of theoretical knowledge allow for a logical study of the collected facts, to develop concepts and judgments, and to draw conclusions:

1. Idealization (E.Mach) – mental construction of an object to which properties are attributed that are possible only in the “ultimate pure case.” The results of idealization are idealized objects, i.e. things that don't really exist. These objects are recorded in sign-symbolic means, and they are much easier to study than real ones. All laws of science are idealized, i.e. their direct relationship with reality is impossible. For real implementation, it is necessary to have adjustment rules for specific conditions.

2. Formalization - clarification of the content of knowledge, carried out by comparing these areas of reality with the phenomena and processes being studied in a certain way, some material structures that are relatively stable in nature and allow one to identify and record the essential and natural aspects of the objects under consideration. Two types of formalized theories: 1) fully formalized (constructed in an axiomatically deductive form with an explicit indication of the logical means used); 2) partially formalized (language and logical means) used in the development of this science are not explicitly recorded (linguistics, various branches of biology). Formalization is the display of meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages ​​(the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.). The main thing in the formalization process is that operations can be performed on formulas. Thus, operations with thoughts about objects are replaced by actions with signs and symbols.

3. Mathematical modeling. A mathematical model is an abstract system consisting of a set of mathematical objects. Two types of mathematical models: 1. description model: does not imply any meaningful statements about the essence of the range of phenomena being studied. The correspondence between the formal and physical structure is not determined by any regularity and has the character of a single fact; 2. Model of explanation. The structure of an object finds its correspondence in a mathematical image; it has the ability to explain.

4. Reflection is the main method of metatheoretical knowledge in science, knowledge directed by the scientist to himself. Here the results themselves are analyzed. The ultimate goal is to determine how valid, accurate, and true the results are. Depending on what stage the development of a particular branch of knowledge is at and what tasks are brought to the fore, a certain type of reflection dominates: 1) reflection on the results of knowledge; 2) analysis of cognitive tools and procedures; 3) identification of the ultimate cultural and historical foundations, philosophical guidelines, norms and ideals of research.

5. The axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory in which it is based on certain initial provisions - axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are deduced from them in a purely logical way, through proof. The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing already acquired scientific knowledge. It has limited application because it requires a high level of development of an axiomatized substantive theory. Axiomatization in science denotes a field of knowledge that represents a unified deductive system, and the content of which is derived from the initial axioms. At present, individual provisions of the theory can be chosen as initial axioms, from which everything else is derived. Those. axioms represent the agreements of scientists that give elements of a theory the status of an axiom

6. Modeling is a method of studying certain objects by reproducing their characteristics on another object - a model. According to the nature of the models, material and ideal modeling are distinguished, expressed in the appropriate symbolic form. Material models are natural objects that obey natural laws in their functioning - physics, mechanics, etc. When materially modeling a specific object, its study is replaced by the study of a certain model that has the same physical nature as the original (models of airplanes, ships, spacecraft, etc.).

With ideal modeling, models appear in the form of graphs, drawings, formulas, systems of equations, sentences of natural and artificial (symbols) language, etc. Currently, mathematical (computer) modeling has become widespread.

7. Systems approach - considering objects as systems. It is characterized by: research into the mechanism of interaction between the system and the environment; studying the nature of the hierarchy inherent in a given system; providing a comprehensive multidimensional description of the system; consideration of the system as a dynamic, developing integrity.

8. The structural-functional (structural) method is based on the identification of their structure in integral systems - a set of stable relationships and interconnections between its elements and their roles relative to each other. Structure is understood as something unchanged under certain transformations, and function as the “purpose” of each of the elements of a given system (functions of any biological organ, functions of the state). The main requirements of the structural-functional method: study of the structure of a system object; study of its elements and their functional characteristics; analysis of changes in these elements and their functions; consideration of the development (history) of the system object as a whole; representation of an object as a harmoniously functioning system, all elements of which “work” to maintain this harmony.

9. The hypothetico-deductive method is based on the derivation (deduction) of conclusions from hypotheses, the true meaning of which is unknown. Hence knowledge is probabilistic in nature. The hypothetico-deductive method involves the relationship between hypotheses and facts. This relationship is contradictory: 1) there is no logical path from the facts to the correct hypothesis; 2) from hypotheses to facts there are many logical constructions. A hypothesis is knowledge that is based on an assumption that has not yet been proven theoretically. In the course of proof, some hypotheses become theories, while others are discarded and turn into delusions. New hypotheses are put forward based on tests of old ones, even if they were negative. The fact is that the path from facts to the conclusion of hypotheses is the path of generalization. The facts themselves do not suggest such a generalization. It is believed that this method is a way to establish hypotheses.

10. Method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. The process of scientific knowledge is always associated with a transition from extremely simple concepts to more complex - concrete ones. When abstracting, everything that interferes with targeted research is discarded. Abstract concepts are: atom, element, price. Abstraction is something incomplete, one-sided, but abstract concepts are of great importance in science. They allow you to study a subject “in its pure form,” when the most essential properties remain. When abstracting, it is important which feature stands out as essential.

11. Historical and logical research methods. To study objects that cannot be reproduced in experience, historical and logical methods are used. The use of the historical method involves a description of the real process of the emergence and development of an object, carried out with maximum completeness. The task of such research is to reveal specific conditions, circumstances and prerequisites for various phenomena, their sequence and the replacement of some stages of development by others. Conditionality of the present and future by the past. The areas of its application are primarily human history, as well as various phenomena of living and inanimate nature (the emergence of life on Earth, the formation of minerals - oil, uranium, etc.). This method allows you to obtain ideas about the movement and development of an object or process. The logical method of research is a method of reproducing in thinking a complex developing object in the form of a specific theory. In the logical study of an object, we are distracted from all historical accidents, unimportant facts, zigzags and even backward movements caused by certain random events. The most important, essential, determining the general direction of development is isolated from history.

12. Constructive-genetic, study of abstract objects in symbolic form, theoretical schemes;

13. Methods of justification: verification or verification, falsification; logical and mathematical proof.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational element - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and “mental operations”. The lack of direct practical interaction with objects determines the peculiarity that an object at a given level of scientific knowledge can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one. However, living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process.

At this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are revealed by processing the data of empirical knowledge. This processing is carried out using systems of “higher order” abstractions - such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc. However, “at the theoretical level we will not find a fixation or abbreviated summary of empirical data; theoretical thinking cannot be reduced to the summation of empirically given material. It turns out that theory does not grow out of empirics, but as if next to it, or rather, above it and in connection with it.”

The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. “The theoretical level of knowledge is aimed at the formation of theoretical laws that meet the requirements of universality and necessity, i.e. operate everywhere and always.” The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

Methods of cognition used at the theoretical level of scientific knowledge. This is, in particular, abstraction- a method that comes down to abstraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object for the purpose of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it. The result of abstraction is the development of abstract concepts that characterize objects from different sides. In the process of cognition, such a technique as analogy- an inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects. Associated with this technique is the method modeling, which has become especially widespread in modern conditions. This method is based on the principle of similarity. Its essence lies in the fact that it is not the object itself that is directly studied, but its analogue, its substitute, its model, and then the results obtained from studying the model are transferred to the object itself according to special rules. Modeling is used in cases where the object itself is either difficult to access, or its direct study is not economically profitable, etc. There are a number of types of modeling: 1). Subject modeling, in which the model reproduces the geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics of an object.

2). Analog modeling, in which the model and the original are described by a single mathematical relationship. 3). Sign modeling, in which diagrams, drawings, and formulas act as models. 4). Closely related to the symbolic is mental modeling, in which models acquire a mentally visual character. 5). Finally, a special type of modeling is the inclusion in an experiment not of the object itself, but of its model, due to which the latter acquires the character of a model experiment. This type of modeling indicates that there is no hard line between the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Idealization is organically connected with modeling - the mental construction of concepts, theories about objects that do not exist and cannot be realized in reality, but those for which there is a close prototype or analogue in the real world. All sciences operate with ideal objects of this kind - an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, a socio-economic formation, a state, etc.

The systems method occupies a significant place in modern science. research or (as is often said) a systems approach. This method is both old and new. It is quite old, since such forms and components as the approach to objects from the point of view of the interaction of part and whole, the formation of unity and integrity, consideration of the system as the law of the structure of a given set of components have existed, as they say, for centuries, but they were scattered. The special development of the systems approach began in the mid-twentieth century with the transition to the study and use in practice of complex multicomponent systems. Systematic approach is a way of theoretically representing and reproducing objects as systems. Basic concepts of the systems approach: “element”, “structure”, “function”, etc. - were discussed earlier in the topic “Dialectics and its alternatives”. The focus of the systems approach is not on studying the elements as such, but primarily on the structure of the object and the place of the elements in it. In general, the main points of the systematic approach are as follows: 1). Studying the phenomenon of integrity and establishing the composition of the whole and its elements. 2). Study of the patterns of connecting elements into a system, i.e. structure of the object, which forms the core of the systems approach. 3). In close connection with the study of structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural and functional analysis of the system. 4). Study of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems. Methods for constructing and substantiating theories occupy a special place in the methodology of science.

Among them, an important place is occupied explanation- the use of more specific, in particular, empirical knowledge to understand more general knowledge. The explanation can be: a) structural, for example, how the motor works; b) functional: how the motor operates; c) causal: why and how it works. When constructing a theory of complex objects, an important role is played by the method of ascent from abstract to concrete. At the initial stage, cognition moves from the real, objective, concrete to the development of abstractions that reflect individual aspects of the object being studied. By dissecting an object, thinking, as it were, kills it, imagining the object dismembered, cut apart by the scalpel of thought. Now comes the next task - to reproduce the object, its holistic picture in the system of concepts, relying on the abstract definitions developed at the first stage, i.e. move from the abstract to the concrete, but already reproduced in thinking, or to the spiritually concrete.

This is precisely the path from the general abstractions of goods, money, etc. to a holistic, rich picture of capitalism is done by Marx in Capital. Moreover, the construction of the theory itself can be carried out either by logical or historical methods, which are closely related to each other. With the historical method, the theory reproduces the real process of the emergence and development of an object up to the present time; with the logical method, it is limited to reproducing the sides of the object as they exist in the object in its developed state. The choice of method, of course, is not arbitrary, but is dictated by the goals of the study. Historical and logical methods are closely interrelated. Indeed, as a result, as a result of development, everything positive that accumulated in the process of development of the object is preserved. It is no coincidence that an organism in its individual development repeats the evolution of living things from the cell level to the modern state. Therefore, we can say that the logical method is the same historical method, but cleared of historical form. In turn, the historical method ultimately gives the same real picture of the object as the logical method, but the logical method is burdened with a historical form.

In the construction of theory, as well as ideal objects, an important role belongs to axiomatization- a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on certain initial provisions - axioms or postulates, from which all other statements of the theory are deduced deductively in a purely logical way, through proof. As noted above, this method of theory building involves extensive use of deduction. A classic example of constructing a theory using the axiomatic method is the geometry of Euclid.

Empirical research, revealing new data through observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them), and poses new, more complex tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirics, opens up new, broader horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in the search for new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

In the process of cognition, a person uses certain techniques and methods. Techniques of scientific knowledge usually mean general logical operations (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy, etc.). Methods are more complex cognitive procedures that include a whole system of techniques, principles and rules of research. It can be said that:

Methodis a system of principles, techniques, rules, requirements that guide the process of scientific knowledge.

Methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into three groups: special, general scientific and universal. Special methods applicable only in certain sciences. For example, the method of spectral analysis in chemistry, or the method of statistical modeling. General scientific methods are universal in nature and applicable in all sciences (experiment, observation, modeling, etc.). They essentially provide a research technique. While universal methods They provide a methodological basis for the study, since they are a general philosophical approach to understanding the world. This category includes the method of dialectics, phenomenology, etc.

Methodology is closely connected with philosophy and especially with such sections as epistemology (theory of knowledge) and dialectics. The methodology is narrower than the theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the very nature of knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the boundaries of knowledge, and the criteria of its truth.

Thus, methodology can be considered as: 1) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge; 2) a set of methods and techniques used in science. There cannot be a universal method in science, since it has already been said that our knowledge about the world is constantly changing, therefore the methodology itself is in continuous development. Known in the history of science metaphysical method Aristotle, who considered it as a doctrine of the most general laws of existence, not directly deducible from experience; inductive method F. Bacon, who, unlike metaphysics, was based on the requirement to draw scientific conclusions from empirical research; R nationalistic R. Descartes' method was based on rules that made it possible to distinguish false from true using deductive reasoning. Dialectical method Hegel and Marx assumed the study of phenomena in their inconsistency, integrity and development. Phenomenological method E. Husserl, who studies spiritual entities given to consciousness as independent of the real world. According to this method, reality is not what exists independently of consciousness, but what it is directed towards.

As is obvious from the examples given, the methodology of scientific research is based on the level of scientific knowledge, therefore, each era in science has its own methodological approaches. They cannot be absolutized, used as certain templates for scientific research, adjusting the results to it, but at the same time they should not be neglected. Methodology is extremely important in scientific knowledge; it is no coincidence that F. Bacon likened it to a lamp that illuminates the scientist’s path to the truth, which protects him from the wrong direction.

Let us briefly consider general scientific methods of scientific research. They are divided into theoretical, empirical and general logical. Empirical:

1. Observation is the study of an object through the senses (sensation, perception, representation), during which knowledge is obtained both about its external properties and characteristics, and about its essence. The cognitive result of observation is the description of information about the object. Observation is not only a passive research method, but presupposes the presence of a target setting, its selective nature, which gives it the features of an active cognitive process. It builds on existing knowledge and methods. During observations, the scientist not only records the results, but also selects, classifies them, and interprets them from the standpoint of one or another scientific theory, so it is no coincidence that they say that “a scientist observes not only with his eyes, but also with his head.”

2. Experiment– a method of scientific study in which conditions are artificially recreated that make it possible to observe the object or phenomenon under study, identifying its qualitative characteristics. Thus, an experiment is a continuation of observation, but unlike it, it allows one to repeatedly reproduce the object under study, change the conditions of its existence, which makes it possible to identify its properties that cannot be recorded under natural conditions. The experiment serves as a test of hypotheses and theories, and also provides material for obtaining new scientific knowledge, thus it is a connecting link between the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge. At the same time, it is both a scientific and practical human activity. The boundary between them is very fluid, and often in the course of some large-scale production or social experiments changes occur in society, the economy, and the environment.

3. Comparison- a cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences. It makes sense only in the aggregate of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in a class is carried out according to characteristics that are essential for this consideration. Moreover, objects that are compared on one basis may be incomparable on another.

Comparison is the basis of such a logical technique as analogy (see below), and serves as the starting point of the comparative-historical method. Its essence is the identification of the general and special in the knowledge of various stages (periods, phases) of development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena.

4. Description- a cognitive operation consisting of recording the results of an experiment (observation or experiment) using certain notation systems adopted in science.

5. Measurement- a set of actions performed using certain means in order to find the numerical value of the measured quantity in accepted units of measurement.

It should be emphasized that empirical research methods are subject to certain conceptual ideas.

Theoretical methods:

1) Scientific hypothesis- an assumption put forward as a preliminary explanation of a phenomenon, process, scientific fact, the truth of which is not obvious and needs confirmation or verification. A hypothesis is simultaneously both a form of knowledge characterized by unreliability and a method of scientific research. A hypothesis arises at the stage of familiarization with empirical material, if it cannot be explained from the standpoint of already existing scientific knowledge. Then they move from the assumption to testing it at the logical and experimental levels. Although there are not always possibilities for experimental verification, and for a long time some scientific ideas exist only as hypotheses. Thus, Mendeleev, on the basis of the law he discovered on changes in the atomic weight of chemical elements, expressed a hypothesis about the existence of a number of elements still unknown to science, which was confirmed only in our time.

2) Axiomatic method- a method of constructing a scientific theory in which it is based on certain initial provisions - axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are deduced from them in a purely logical way, through proof. To derive theorems from axioms (and in general some formulas from others), special rules of inference are formulated. Consequently, a proof in the axiomatic method is a certain sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom or is obtained from previous formulas according to some rule of inference.

The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing already acquired scientific knowledge. It has limited application because it requires a high level of development of an axiomatized substantive theory. The famous French physicist Louis de Broglie drew attention to the fact that “the axiomatic method may be a good method of classification or teaching, but it is not a method of discovery.”

One of the methods of deductive construction of scientific theories, in which a system of basic terms is first formulated, and then with their help a set of axioms (postulates) is formed - provisions that do not require proof, from which other statements of this theory are derived. And then the postulates are transformed into theorems.

3). Abstraction– the process of mentally identifying individual features and properties of an object for the deepest understanding of them. As a result of this process, various kinds of “abstract objects” are obtained, which are both individual concepts and categories (“whiteness”, “development”, “contradiction”, “thinking”, etc.), and their systems. The most developed of them are mathematics, logic, dialectics, and philosophy.

Finding out which of the properties under consideration are essential and which are secondary is the main question of abstraction. This question in each specific case is decided primarily depending on the nature of the subject being studied, as well as on the specific objectives of the study.

4. Idealization - extreme distraction from the real properties of an object and the formation of ideal objects for operating with theoretical thinking. For example, the concept of a material point does not correspond to any object existing in reality, but it allows us to give a theoretical explanation of the behavior of material objects in mechanics, astronomy, geography, etc. The idealized object ultimately acts as a reflection of real objects and processes. Having formed theoretical constructs about this kind of objects using idealization, you can further operate with them in reasoning as with a really existing thing and build abstract diagrams of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them.

4.Formalization- display of content knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created to accurately express thoughts in order to eliminate the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages ​​(the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.). The use of special symbols allows you to eliminate the ambiguity of words in ordinary, natural language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.

5. Generalization– establishment of general properties of attributes of objects. Moreover, any features (abstract general) or essential (concrete general, law) can be highlighted. This method is closely related to abstraction.

6) Analogy- a method that allows, on the basis of the similarity of objects according to certain characteristics, properties in some respects, to assume their similarity in other respects. The conclusion by analogy is problematic and requires further justification and verification.

7) Modeling– a research method in which the object being studied is replaced by its analogue, i.e. model, and the knowledge gained from studying the model is transferred to the original. It is used in cases where studying the original is difficult. With the spread of computers, computer modeling has become widespread.

Boolean methods:

1. Deduction(inference) - a method in which reasoning is built from the general to the specific. It provides opportunities to explain cause-and-effect relationships

2. Induction(guidance) - a method in which reasoning ascends from the particular to the general. This method is associated with generalizations of the results of observations and experiments. In induction, the data of experience “point” to the general, induce it. Since experience is always infinite and incomplete, inductive conclusions always have a problematic (probabilistic) nature. Inductive generalizations are usually regarded as empirical truths (empirical laws). Whereas the method of deduction is that from true premises it always leads to a true, reliable conclusion, and not to a probabilistic (problematic) one. Deductive inferences allow one to obtain new truths from existing knowledge, and moreover, using pure reasoning, without resorting to experience, intuition, common sense, etc.
Analysis - a method of scientific research consisting of mental decomposition of a whole into parts.

3. Synthesis – a method of scientific knowledge, consisting in knowing it as a whole.

Analysis and synthesis are interconnected and complement each other. The form of their relationship is classification or the distribution of facts and phenomena into classes (divisions, categories) depending on general characteristics. Classification records the natural connections between individual classes of objects and phenomena and provides material for identifying scientific laws. The most striking example is the periodic system of D.I. Mendeleev.

The method of theoretical synthesis allows you to combine specific objects, placing them in a certain relationship, system. This method is called systematization. The system method involves: a) identifying the dependence of each element on its place and functions in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are irreducible to the sum of the properties of its elements; b) analysis of the extent to which the behavior of the system is determined both by the characteristics of its individual elements and by the properties of its structure; c) study of the mechanism of interaction between the system and the environment; d) studying the nature of the hierarchy inherent in a given system; e) providing a comprehensive multidimensional description of the system; f) consideration of the system as a dynamic, developing integrity.

The specificity of the systems approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the research on revealing the integrity of the developing object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

In the process of scientific knowledge, the listed methods are used comprehensively by scientists. None of them in itself guarantees successful results, so the researcher must strive to master a variety of research methods and techniques and also take into account the specifics of knowledge in different areas of scientific knowledge.
Thus, in the social and human sciences, the results of observation largely depend on the personality of the observer, his life attitudes, value orientations and other subjective factors. These sciences distinguish simple (ordinary) observation, where facts and events are recorded from the outside, and participant (participant observation) when the researcher gets involved, “gets used to” a certain social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events “from the inside.” Psychology uses such forms of observation as introspection (introspection) and empathy - penetration into the experiences of other people, the desire to understand their inner world - their feelings, thoughts, desires, etc.

Social experiments are increasingly developing, which contribute to the introduction of new forms of social organization and optimization of social management. The object of a social experiment, in the role of a certain group of people, is one of the participants in the experiment, whose interests have to be taken into account, and the researcher himself is included in the situation he is studying.

In psychology, to identify how this or that mental activity is formed, the subject is placed in various experimental conditions, asked to solve certain problems. In this case, it turns out to be possible to experimentally form complex mental processes and study their structure more deeply. In educational psychology, this approach is called a formative experiment.

Social experiments require the researcher to strictly adhere to moral and legal norms and principles. Here (as in medicine) the requirement “do no harm!” is very important.

In the social and human sciences, in addition to philosophical and general scientific ones, specific means, methods and operations are used, determined by the peculiarities of the subject of these sciences. Among them:

1. Idiographic method- description of the individual characteristics of individual historical facts and events.

2. Dialogue("question-answer method").

4.Document analysis- qualitative and quantitative (content analysis).

5. Polls- interview, questionnaire, postal, telephone, etc. surveys. There are mass and specialized surveys, in which the main source of information is competent professional experts.

6. Projective methods(characteristic of psychology) - a method of indirectly studying a person’s personal characteristics based on the results of his productive activities.

7. Testing(in psychology and pedagogy) - standardized tasks, the result of which allows you to measure certain personal characteristics (knowledge, skills, memory, attention, etc.). There are two main groups of tests - intelligence tests (the famous IQ coefficient) and achievement tests (professional, sports, etc.). When working with tests, the ethical aspect is very important: in the hands of an unscrupulous or incompetent researcher, tests can cause serious harm.

8. Biographical and autobiographical methods.

9. Sociometry method- application of mathematical means to the study of social phenomena. Most often used in the study of “small groups” and interpersonal relationships in them.

10. Game methods- used in developing management decisions - simulation (business) games and open-ended games (especially when analyzing non-standard situations). Among the gaming methods, psychodrama and sociodrama are distinguished, where participants play out individual and group situations, respectively.

Thus, in scientific knowledge there is a complex system of diverse methods of different levels, spheres of action, focus, etc., which are always implemented taking into account specific conditions and the subject of research.

Theoretical methods of cognition are what is commonly called “cold reason.” A mind skilled in theoretical research. Why is this so? Remember the famous phrase of Sherlock Holmes: “And from here on, please speak in as much detail as possible!” At the stage of this phrase and the subsequent story of Helen Stoner, the famous detective initiates the preliminary stage - sensory (empirical) knowledge.

By the way, this episode gives us the basis for comparing two degrees of knowledge: only primary (empirical) and primary together with secondary (theoretical). Conan Doyle does this through the images of his two main characters.

How does retired military doctor Watson react to the girl’s story? He gets fixated on the emotional stage, having decided in advance that the story of the unfortunate stepdaughter is caused by her unmotivated suspicion of her stepfather.

Two stages of the method of cognition

Helen Holmes listens to her speech in a completely different way. He first perceives verbal information by ear. However, the empirical information obtained in this way is not the final product for him; he needs it as raw material for subsequent intellectual processing.

Skillfully using theoretical methods of cognition to process every bit of information received (not one of which escaped his attention), the classic literary character seeks to resolve the mystery of the crime. Moreover, he applies theoretical methods with brilliance, with analytical sophistication that fascinates readers. With their help, internal hidden connections are found and the patterns that resolve the situation are determined.

What is the nature of theoretical methods of cognition

We deliberately turned to a literary example. With his help, we hope our story began not impersonally.

It should be recognized that science at its modern level has become the main driving force of progress precisely thanks to its “toolkit” - research methods. All of them, as we have already mentioned, are divided into two large groups: empirical and theoretical. A common feature of both groups is the goal set - true knowledge. They differ in their approach to knowledge. At the same time, scientists practicing empirical methods are called practitioners, and theoretical ones are called theorists.

Let us also note that often the results of empirical and theoretical studies do not coincide with each other. This is the reason for the existence of two groups of methods.

Empirical (from the Greek word “empirios” - observation) are characterized by purposeful, organized perception, defined by the research task and subject area. In them, scientists use optimal forms of recording results.

The theoretical level of cognition is characterized by the processing of empirical information using data formalization techniques and specific information processing techniques.

For a scientist practicing theoretical methods of cognition, the ability to use creatively, as a tool in demand by the optimal method, is of paramount importance.

Empirical and theoretical methods have common generic characteristics:

• the fundamental role of various forms of thinking: concepts, theories, laws;
• for any of the theoretical methods, the source of primary information is empirical knowledge;
• in the future, the obtained data is subject to analytical processing using a special conceptual apparatus and information processing technology provided for them;
• The goal for which theoretical methods of cognition are used is the synthesis of inferences and conclusions, the development of concepts and judgments as a result of which new knowledge is born.

Thus, at the primary stage of the process, the scientist receives sensory information using methods of empirical cognition:

• observation (passive, non-interventional monitoring of phenomena and processes);
• experiment (fixation of the process under artificially specified initial conditions);
• measurements (determining the ratio of the determined parameter to the generally accepted standard);
• comparison (associative perception of one process compared to another).

Theory as a result of knowledge

What kind of feedback coordinates the methods of theoretical and empirical levels of cognition? Feedback when testing the truth of theories. At the theoretical stage, based on the received sensory information, the key problem is formulated. To resolve it, hypotheses are drawn up. The most optimal and well-developed ones develop into theories.

The reliability of a theory is checked by its compliance with objective facts (data of sensory cognition) and scientific facts (reliable knowledge, verified many times before for truth.) For such adequacy, the selection of an optimal theoretical method of cognition is important. It is he who must ensure maximum compliance of the fragment being studied with objective reality and the analytical presentation of its results.

Concepts of method and theory. Their commonalities and differences

Properly chosen methods provide the “moment of truth” in knowledge: the development of a hypothesis into a theory. Having been updated, general scientific methods of theoretical knowledge are filled with the necessary facts precisely in the developed theory of knowledge, becoming its integral part.

If we artificially isolate such a perfectly working method from a ready-made, generally accepted theory, then, having examined it separately, we will find that it has acquired new properties.

On the one hand, it is filled with special knowledge (by incorporating the ideas of the current research), and on the other, it acquires general generic features of relatively homogeneous objects of study. This is precisely what expresses the dialectical relationship between the method and the theory of scientific knowledge.

The commonality of their nature is tested for relevance throughout the entire period of their existence. The first acquires the function of organizational regulation, prescribing to the scientist a formal procedure for manipulation to achieve the goals of the study. Being used by a scientist, methods of the theoretical level of knowledge take the object of study beyond the existing previous theory.

The difference between method and theory is expressed in the fact that they represent different forms of knowledge of scientific knowledge.

If the second expresses the essence, laws of existence, conditions of development, internal connections of the object under study, then the first orients the researcher, dictating to him a “road map of knowledge”: requirements, principles of subject-transforming and cognitive activity.

It can be said in another way: theoretical methods of scientific knowledge are addressed directly to the researcher, appropriately regulating his thought process, directing the process of obtaining new knowledge in the most rational direction.

Their importance in the development of science led to the creation of its separate branch, which describes the theoretical tools of the researcher, called methodology based on epistemological principles (epistemology - the science of knowledge).

List of theoretical methods of cognition

It is well known that the following variants of theoretical methods of cognition include:

• modeling;
• formalization;
• analysis;
• synthesis;
• abstraction;
• induction;
• deduction;
• idealization.

Of course, the qualifications of the scientist are important in the practical effectiveness of each of them. A knowledgeable specialist, having analyzed the main methods of theoretical knowledge, will select the necessary one from their totality. It is he who will play a key role in the effectiveness of cognition itself.

Modeling method example

In March 1945, under the auspices of the Ballistic Laboratory (USAF), the operating principles of the PC were outlined. This was a classic example of scientific knowledge. A group of physicists, reinforced by the famous mathematician John von Neumann, took part in the research. A native of Hungary, he was the principal analyst for this study.

The above-mentioned scientist used the modeling method as a research tool.

Initially, all devices of the future PC - arithmetic-logical, memory, control device, input and output devices - existed verbally, in the form of axioms formulated by Neumann.

The mathematician put the data from empirical physical research into the form of a mathematical model. Subsequently, the researcher studied it, and not its prototype. Having received the result, Neumann “translated” it into the language of physics. By the way, the thought process demonstrated by the Hungarian made a great impression on the physicists themselves, as evidenced by their reviews.

Note that it would be more accurate to give this method the name “modeling and formalization.” It is not enough to create the model itself; it is equally important to formalize the internal connections of the object through a coding language. After all, this is exactly how a computer model should be interpreted.

Today, such computer modeling, which is carried out using special mathematical programs, is quite common. It is widely used in economics, physics, biology, automotive industry, and radio electronics.

Modern computer modeling

The computer simulation method involves the following steps:

• definition of the modeled object, formalization of the installation for modeling;
• drawing up a plan for computer experiments with the model;
• analysis of the results.

There are simulation and analytical modeling. Modeling and formalization are a universal tool.

The simulation displays the functioning of the system when it sequentially performs a huge number of elementary operations. Analytical modeling describes the nature of an object using differential control systems that have a solution that reflects the ideal state of the object.

In addition to mathematics, they also distinguish:

• conceptual modeling (through symbols, operations between them, and languages, formal or natural);
• physical modeling (object and model - real objects or phenomena);
• structural and functional (graphs, diagrams, tables are used as a model).

Abstraction

The abstraction method helps to understand the essence of the issue being studied and solve very complex problems. It allows you to discard everything unimportant and focus on the fundamental details.

For example, if we turn to kinematics, it becomes obvious that researchers use this particular method. Thus, it was initially identified as primary, rectilinear and uniform movement (with such abstraction it was possible to isolate the basic parameters of movement: time, distance, speed.)

This method always involves some generalization.

By the way, the opposite theoretical method of cognition is called concretization. Using it to study changes in speed, the researchers came up with a definition of acceleration.

Analogy

The analogy method is used to formulate fundamentally new ideas by finding analogues of phenomena or objects (in this case, analogues are both ideal and real objects that have an adequate correspondence to the phenomena or objects being studied.)

An example of the effective use of analogy can be well-known discoveries. Charles Darwin, taking as a basis the evolutionary concept of the struggle for the livelihood of the poor with the rich, created the theory of evolution. Niels Bohr, relying on the planetary structure of the Solar system, substantiated the concept of the orbital structure of the atom. J. Maxwell and F. Huygens created the theory of wave electromagnetic oscillations, using, as an analogue, the theory of wave mechanical oscillations.

The analogy method becomes relevant if the following conditions are met:

• as many essential features as possible should resemble each other;
• a sufficiently large sample of known traits must be truly related to the unknown trait;
• analogy should not be interpreted as identical similarity;
• It is also necessary to consider the fundamental differences between the subject of study and its analogue.

Note that this method is most often and fruitfully used by economists.

Analysis - synthesis

Analysis and synthesis find their application both in scientific research and in ordinary mental activity.

The first is the process of mentally (most often) breaking down the object under study into its components for a more complete study of each of them. However, the analysis stage is followed by a synthesis stage, when the studied components are combined together. In this case, all properties identified during their analysis are taken into account and then their relationships and methods of communication are determined.

The integrated use of analysis and synthesis is characteristic of theoretical knowledge. It was these methods, in their unity and opposition, that the German philosopher Hegel laid as the basis for dialectics, which, in his words, “is the soul of all scientific knowledge.”

Induction and deduction

When the term “methods of analysis” is used, it most often refers to deduction and induction. These are logical methods.

Deduction presupposes a course of reasoning that follows from the general to the particular. It allows us to identify certain consequences from the general content of the hypothesis that can be substantiated empirically. Thus, deduction is characterized by the establishment of a common connection.

Sherlock Holmes, mentioned at the beginning of this article, very clearly substantiated his deductive method in the story “The Land of Crimson Clouds”: “Life is an endless connection of causes and effects. Therefore, we can understand it by examining one link after another.” The famous detective collected as much information as possible, choosing the most significant from many versions.

Continuing to characterize methods of analysis, let us characterize induction. This is the formulation of a general conclusion from a series of particulars (from the particular to the general.) A distinction is made between complete and incomplete induction. Complete induction is characterized by the development of a theory, while incomplete induction is characterized by the development of a hypothesis. The hypothesis, as is known, should be updated by proving it. Only after this does it become a theory. Induction, as a method of analysis, is widely used in philosophy, economics, medicine, and law.

Idealization

Often the theory of scientific knowledge uses ideal concepts that do not exist in reality. Researchers endow non-natural objects with special, extreme properties that are possible only in “limiting” cases. Examples include a straight line, a material point, and an ideal gas. Thus, science distinguishes from the objective world certain objects that are completely amenable to scientific description, devoid of secondary properties.

The idealization method, in particular, was used by Galileo, who noticed that if all external forces acting on a moving object are removed, it will continue to move indefinitely, rectilinearly and uniformly.

Thus, idealization makes it possible in theory to obtain a result that is unattainable in reality.

However, in reality, for this case, the researcher takes into account: the height of the falling object above sea level, the latitude of the point of impact, the impact of wind, air density, etc.

Training of methodological scientists as the most important task of education

Today, the role of universities in training specialists who are creatively proficient in the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge is becoming obvious. At the same time, as evidenced by the experience of Stanford, Harvard, Yale and Columbia universities, they play a leading role in the development of new technologies. Perhaps this is why their graduates are in demand in knowledge-intensive companies, the share of which has a constant tendency to increase.

An important role in the training of researchers is played by:

• flexibility of the education program;
• the opportunity for individual training for the most talented students capable of becoming promising young scientists.

At the same time, the specialization of people developing human knowledge in the field of IT, engineering, production, and mathematical modeling requires the presence of teachers with up-to-date qualifications.

Conclusion

The examples of theoretical knowledge methods mentioned in the article give a general idea of ​​the creative work of scientists. Their activity boils down to the formation of a scientific representation of the world.

It, in a narrower, special sense, consists in the skillful use of a certain scientific method.
The researcher summarizes empirical verified facts, puts forward and tests scientific hypotheses, and formulates a scientific theory that advances human knowledge from a statement of the known to an awareness of the previously unknown.

Sometimes scientists' ability to use theoretical scientific methods is like magic. Even after centuries, no one doubts the genius of Leonardo da Vinci, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein.