Methods of scientific knowledge of the empirical level include. Methods of cognition
There are two levels of knowledge: empirical and theoretical.
The empirical (from the gr. Emreria - experience) level of knowledge is knowledge obtained directly from experience with some rational processing of the properties and relationships of the object being cognized. It is always the basis, the basis for the theoretical level of knowledge.
The theoretical level is knowledge obtained through abstract thinking.
A person begins the process of cognition of an object with its external description, fixes its individual properties and aspects. Then he goes deep into the content of the object, reveals the laws to which it is subject, proceeds to explain the properties of the object, combines knowledge about individual aspects of the object into a single, holistic system, and the resulting deep, versatile, specific knowledge about the object is a theory that has a certain internal logical structure.
It is necessary to distinguish the concepts of “sensual” and “rational” from the concepts of “empirical” and “theoretical”. “Sensual” and “rational” characterize the dialectics of the process of reflection in general, while “empirical” and “theoretical” relate to the sphere of scientific knowledge only.
Empirical knowledge is formed in the process of interaction with the object of research, when we directly influence it, interact with it, process the results and draw a conclusion. But obtaining individual empirical facts and laws does not yet allow us to build a system of laws. In order to understand the essence, it is necessary to move to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.
The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are always inextricably linked and mutually determine each other. Thus, empirical research, revealing new facts, new observational and experimental data, stimulates the development of the theoretical level and poses new problems and challenges. In turn, theoretical research, by considering and specifying the theoretical content of science, opens up new prospects for explaining and predicting facts and thereby orients and guides empirical knowledge. Empirical knowledge is mediated by theoretical knowledge - theoretical knowledge indicates which phenomena and events should be the object of empirical research and under what conditions the experiment should be carried out. Theoretically, the limits within which the results at the empirical level are true and within which empirical knowledge can be used in practice are also found and indicated. This is precisely the heuristic function of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.
The boundary between the empirical and theoretical levels is quite arbitrary; their independence from each other is relative. The empirical turns into the theoretical, and what was once theoretical, at another, higher stage of development, becomes empirically accessible. In any sphere of scientific knowledge, at all levels, there is a dialectical unity of the theoretical and empirical. The leading role in this unity of dependence on the subject, conditions and existing, obtained scientific results belongs to either the empirical or the theoretical. The basis for the unity of the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge is the unity of scientific theory and research practice.
Basic methods of scientific knowledge
Each level of scientific knowledge uses its own methods. Thus, at the empirical level, such basic methods as observation, experiment, description, measurement, and modeling are used. Theoretically - analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, induction, deduction, idealization, historical and logical methods, and the like.
Observation is a systematic and purposeful perception of objects and phenomena, their properties and connections in natural conditions or in experimental conditions with the aim of understanding the object under study.
The main functions of surveillance are:
Recording and recording facts;
Preliminary classification of facts already recorded on the basis of certain principles formulated on the basis of existing theories;
Comparisons of recorded facts.
With the complication of scientific knowledge, the goal, plan, theoretical principles, and understanding of the results acquire more and more weight. As a result, the role of theoretical thinking in observation increases.
Observation is especially difficult in the social sciences, where its results largely depend on the ideological and methodological attitudes of the observer and his attitude towards the object.
The observation method is limited by the method, since with its help it is only possible to record certain properties and connections of an object, but it is impossible to reveal their essence, nature, and development trends. Comprehensive observation of the object is the basis for the experiment.
An experiment is a study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the process in a certain direction.
Unlike simple observation, which does not involve active influence on the object, an experiment is an active intervention of the researcher into natural phenomena during the processes that are being studied. An experiment is a type of practice in which practical action is organically combined with theoretical work of thought.
The significance of the experiment lies not only in the fact that with its help science explains the phenomena of the material world, but also in the fact that science, relying on experience, directly masters certain phenomena being studied. Therefore, experiment serves as one of the main means of connecting science with production. After all, it allows you to verify the correctness of scientific conclusions and discoveries, new patterns. The experiment serves as a means of research and invention of new devices, machines, materials and processes in industrial production, a necessary stage in the practical testing of new scientific and technical discoveries.
Experiment is widely used not only in the natural sciences, but also in social practice, where it plays an important role in the knowledge and management of social processes.
The experiment has its own specific features compared to other methods:
The experiment makes it possible to study objects in the so-called pure form;
The experiment allows you to study the properties of objects under extreme conditions, which contributes to a deeper penetration into their essence;
An important advantage of an experiment is its repeatability, due to which this method acquires special significance and value in scientific knowledge.
Description is an indication of the characteristics of an object or phenomenon, both significant and non-essential. The description, as a rule, is applied to single, individual objects for a more complete acquaintance with them. Its goal is to provide the most complete information about the object.
Measurement is a certain system of fixing and recording the quantitative characteristics of the object under study using various measuring instruments and apparatus. With the help of measurement, the ratio of one quantitative characteristic of an object to another, homogeneous with it, taken as a unit of measurement, is determined. The main functions of the measurement method are, firstly, recording the quantitative characteristics of the object; secondly, classification and comparison of measurement results.
Modeling is the study of an object (original) by creating and studying its copy (model), which, in its properties to a certain extent, reproduces the properties of the object under study.
Modeling is used when direct study of objects is for some reason impossible, difficult or impractical. There are two main types of modeling: physical and mathematical. At the present stage of development of scientific knowledge, a particularly important role is given to computer modeling. A computer that operates according to a special program is capable of simulating very real processes: fluctuations in market prices, spacecraft orbits, demographic processes, and other quantitative parameters of the development of nature, society, and an individual.
Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge.
Analysis is the division of an object into its component parts (sides, characteristics, properties, relationships) with the aim of comprehensively studying them.
Synthesis is the combination of previously identified parts (sides, characteristics, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole.
Analysis and synthesis are dialectically contradictory and interdependent methods of cognition. Cognition of an object in its specific integrity presupposes its preliminary division into components and consideration of each of them. This task is performed by analysis. It makes it possible to highlight the essential, that which forms the basis for the connection of all aspects of the object being studied. That is, dialectical analysis is a means of penetrating into the essence of things. But, playing an important role in cognition, analysis does not provide knowledge of the concrete, knowledge of the object as a unity of the diverse, the unity of various definitions. This task is performed by synthesis. So, analysis and synthesis are organically interconnected and mutually determine each other at every stage of the process of theoretical knowledge.
Abstraction is a method of abstracting from certain properties and relationships of an object and at the same time focusing the main attention on those that are the direct subject of scientific research. Abstraction promotes the penetration of knowledge into the essence of phenomena, the movement of knowledge from phenomenon to essence. It is clear that abstraction dismembers, coarsens, and schematizes the integral moving reality. However, this is precisely what allows a more in-depth study of individual aspects of the subject “in its pure form.” And that means penetrating into their essence.
Generalization is a method of scientific knowledge that records the general characteristics and properties of a certain group of objects, makes the transition from the individual to the special and general, from the less general to the more general.
In the process of cognition, it is often necessary, based on existing knowledge, to draw conclusions that constitute new knowledge about the unknown. This is done using methods such as induction and deduction.
Induction is a method of scientific knowledge when, based on knowledge about the individual, a conclusion about the general is drawn. It is a method of reasoning that establishes the validity of a proposition or hypothesis. In real knowledge, induction always appears in unity with deduction and is organically connected with it.
Deduction is a method of cognition when, on the basis of a general principle, a new true knowledge about an individual is necessarily deduced from some provisions as true. With the help of this method, the individual is cognized on the basis of knowledge of general laws.
Idealization is a method of logical modeling through which idealized objects are created. Idealization is aimed at the processes of conceivable construction of possible objects. The results of idealization are not arbitrary. In the extreme case, they correspond to individual real properties of objects or allow their interpretation based on data from the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Idealization is associated with a “thought experiment”, as a result of which, from a hypothetical minimum of some signs of the behavior of objects, the laws of their functioning are discovered or generalized. The limits of the effectiveness of idealization are determined by practice.
Historical and logical methods are organically connected. The historical method involves consideration of the objective process of development of an object, its real history with all its turns and features. This is a certain way of reproducing in thinking the historical process in its chronological sequence and specificity.
The logical method is a method by which one mentally reproduces a real historical process in its theoretical form, in a system of concepts.
The task of historical research is to reveal the specific conditions for the development of certain phenomena. The task of logical research is to reveal the role that individual elements of the system play as part of the development of the whole.
The empirical level is a reflection of external signs and aspects of connections. Obtaining empirical facts, their description and systematization
Based on experience as the only source of knowledge.
The main task of empirical knowledge is to collect, describe, accumulate facts, perform their primary processing, and answer the questions: what is what? what and how is happening?
This activity is provided by: observation, description, measurement, experiment.
Observation:
This is the deliberate and directed perception of an object of cognition in order to obtain information about its form, properties and relationships.
The process of observation is not passive contemplation. This is an active, directed form of the epistemological relationship of the subject in relation to the object, reinforced by additional means of observation, recording information and its translation.
Requirements: purpose of observation; choice of methodology; observation plan; control over the correctness and reliability of the results obtained; processing, comprehension and interpretation of received information (requires special attention).
Description:
The description, as it were, continues the observation; it is a form of recording observation information, its final stage.
With the help of description, information from the senses is translated into the language of signs, concepts, diagrams, graphs, acquiring a form convenient for subsequent rational processing (systematization, classification, generalization, etc.).
The description is carried out not on the basis of natural language, but on the basis of an artificial language, which is distinguished by logical rigor and unambiguity.
The description can be oriented towards qualitative or quantitative certainty.
Quantitative description requires fixed measurement procedures, which necessitates the expansion of the fact-recording activity of the subject of cognition by including such a cognition operation as measurement.
Dimension:
The qualitative characteristics of an object, as a rule, are recorded by instruments; the quantitative specificity of the object is established using measurements.
a technique in cognition with the help of which a quantitative comparison of quantities of the same quality is carried out.
this is a kind of system for providing cognition.
Its importance was pointed out by D.I. Mendeleev: knowledge of measure and weight is the only way to the discovery of laws.
reveals some common connections between objects.
Experiment:
Unlike ordinary observation, in an experiment the researcher actively intervenes in the course of the process being studied in order to gain additional knowledge.
This is a special technique (method) of cognition, representing a systematic and repeatedly reproduced observation of an object in the process of deliberate and controlled trial influences of the subject on the object of study.
In an experiment, the subject of knowledge studies a problem situation in order to obtain comprehensive information.
the object is controlled under specially specified conditions, which makes it possible to record all properties, connections, relationships by changing the parameters of the conditions.
experiment is the most active form of epistemological relationship in the “subject-object” system at the level of sensory cognition.
8. Levels of scientific knowledge: theoretical level.
The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational element - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking and “mental operations”. Living contemplation, sensory cognition is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process. Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational processing of empirical knowledge data.
A characteristic feature of theoretical knowledge is its focus on itself, internal scientific reflection, i.e., the study of the process of knowledge itself, its forms, techniques, methods, conceptual apparatus, etc. On the basis of theoretical explanation and known laws, prediction and scientific foresight of the future is carried out.
1. Formalization - display of content knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). When formalized, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages (the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.).
It is the use of special symbols that makes it possible to eliminate the ambiguity of words in ordinary, natural language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.
Formalization, therefore, is a generalization of the forms of processes that differ in content, and the abstraction of these forms from their content. It clarifies the content by identifying its form and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness. But, as the Austrian logician and mathematician Gödel showed, there is always an undetected, unformalizable remainder in the theory. The ever-deepening formalization of the content of knowledge will never reach absolute completeness. This means that formalization is internally limited in its capabilities. It has been proven that there is no universal method that allows any reasoning to be replaced by calculation. Gödel's theorems provided a fairly rigorous justification for the fundamental impossibility of complete formalization of scientific reasoning and scientific knowledge in general.
2. The axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory in which it is based on certain initial provisions - axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are deduced from them in a purely logical way, through proof.
3. The hypothetico-deductive method is a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived. The conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably be probabilistic in nature.
General structure of the hypothetico-deductive method:
a) familiarization with factual material that requires a theoretical explanation and an attempt to do so with the help of already existing theories and laws. If not, then:
b) putting forward conjectures (hypotheses, assumptions) about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using a variety of logical techniques;
c) assessing the validity and seriousness of assumptions and selecting the most probable from among many of them;
d) deducing consequences from a hypothesis (usually deductively) with clarification of its content;
e) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. However, confirmation of individual consequences does not guarantee its truth (or falsity) as a whole. The best hypothesis based on the test results becomes a theory.
4. Ascent from the abstract to the concrete - a method of theoretical research and presentation, consisting in the movement of scientific thought from the initial abstraction through successive stages of deepening and expanding knowledge to the result - a holistic reproduction of the theory of the subject under study. As its premise, this method includes an ascent from the sensory-concrete to the abstract, to the isolation in thinking of individual aspects of the subject and their “fixation” in the corresponding abstract definitions. The movement of knowledge from the sensory-concrete to the abstract is the movement from the individual to the general; logical techniques such as analysis and induction predominate here. The ascent from the abstract to the mentally-concrete is the process of movement from individual general abstractions to their unity, the concrete-universal; the methods of synthesis and deduction dominate here.
The essence of theoretical knowledge is not only the description and explanation of the variety of facts and patterns identified in the process of empirical research in a certain subject area, based on a small number of laws and principles, it is also expressed in the desire of scientists to reveal the harmony of the universe.
Theories can be presented in a variety of ways. We often encounter the tendency of scientists towards axiomatic construction of theories, which imitates the pattern of organization of knowledge created in geometry by Euclid. However, most often theories are presented genetically, gradually introducing the subject and revealing it sequentially from the simplest to more and more complex aspects.
Regardless of the accepted form of presentation of the theory, its content, of course, is determined by the basic principles that underlie it.
Aimed at explaining objective reality, it does not directly describe the surrounding reality, but ideal objects that are characterized not by an infinite, but by a well-defined number of properties:
fundamental theories
specific theories
Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge:
Idealization is a special epistemological relationship where the subject mentally constructs an object, the prototype of which is available in the real world.
Axiomatic method - This is a method of producing new knowledge, when it is based on axioms, from which all other statements are derived in a purely logical way, followed by a description of this conclusion.
Hypothetico-deductive method - This is a special technique for producing new but probable knowledge.
Formalization - This technique consists of constructing abstract models with the help of which real objects are studied.
Unity of the historical and logical - Any process of reality breaks down into phenomenon and essence, into its empirical history and the main line of development.
Thought experiment method. A thought experiment is a system of mental procedures carried out on idealized objects.
A person’s cognitive relationship to the world is carried out in various forms - in the form of everyday knowledge, artistic, religious knowledge, and finally, in the form of scientific knowledge. The first three areas of knowledge are considered, in contrast to science, as non-scientific forms. Scientific knowledge grew out of everyday knowledge, but at present these two forms of knowledge are quite far apart.
There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical. These levels should not be confused with the aspects of cognition in general - sensory reflection and rational cognition. The fact is that in the first case we mean various types of cognitive activity of scientists, and in the second we are talking about the types of mental activity of an individual in the process of cognition in general, and both of these types are used both at the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.
The levels of scientific knowledge themselves differ in a number of parameters: 1) in the subject of research. Empirical research is focused on phenomena, theoretical research is focused on essence; 2) by means and instruments of cognition; 3) according to research methods. At the empirical level, this is observation, experiment, at the theoretical level - a systematic approach, idealization, etc.; 4) by the nature of the acquired knowledge. In one case these are empirical facts, classifications, empirical laws, in the second - laws, disclosure of essential connections, theories.
In the XVII-XVIII and partly in the XIX centuries. science was still at the empirical stage, limiting its tasks to the generalization and classification of empirical facts, and the formulation of empirical laws. Subsequently, the theoretical level is built on top of the empirical level, which is associated with a comprehensive study of reality in its essential connections and patterns. Moreover, both types of research are organically interconnected and presuppose each other in the holistic structure of scientific knowledge.
Methods applicable at the empirical level of scientific knowledge: observation and experiment.
Observation- this is the deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct interference in their course, subordinated to the tasks of scientific research. The basic requirements for scientific observation are the following: 1) unambiguous purpose and design; 2) consistency in observation methods; 3) objectivity; 4) the possibility of control either through repeated observation or through experiment.
Observation is used, as a rule, where intervention in the process under study is undesirable or impossible. Observation in modern science is associated with the widespread use of instruments, which, firstly, enhance the senses, and secondly, remove the touch of subjectivity from the assessment of observed phenomena. An important place in the process of observation (as well as experiment) is occupied by the measurement operation. Measurement- is the definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., an important component of the study is the interpretation of the data obtained.
Observation in the social sciences is particularly difficult, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participant (participant) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).
Experiment in contrast to observation, it is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of experiment in comparison with observation are that, firstly, it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times.
There are several types of experiments.
1) The simplest type of experiment is qualitative, establishing the presence or absence of phenomena proposed by the theory.
2) The second, more complex type is a measuring or quantitative experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of any property (or properties) of an object or process.
3) A special type of experiment in fundamental sciences is a thought experiment.
4) Finally: a specific type of experiment is a social experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimize management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.
Observation and experiment are the source scientific facts, which in science are understood as a special kind of sentences that capture empirical knowledge. Facts are the foundation of the building of science; they form the empirical basis of science, the basis for putting forward hypotheses and creating theories.
Let us designate some processing and systematization methods empirical knowledge. This is primarily analysis and synthesis. Analysis- the process of mental, and often real, division of an object or phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure to analysis is synthesis. Synthesis- this is the combination of the sides of an object identified during the analysis into a single whole.
A significant role in generalizing the results of observations and experiments belongs to induction (from the Latin inductio - guidance), a special type of generalization of experimental data. During induction, the researcher’s thought moves from the particular (particular factors) to the general. There are popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction, the movement of thought from the general to the specific. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge.
The induction process is associated with an operation such as comparison- establishing similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis prepare the ground for the development of classifications - combining various concepts and corresponding phenomena into certain groups, types in order to establish connections between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications - the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of diagrams and tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.
1. Empirical level of scientific knowledge.
Sensual and rational are the main level components of any knowledge, not only scientific. However, in the course of the historical development of knowledge, levels are identified and formalized that are significantly different from the simple distinction between the sensory and the rational, although they have the rational and the sensory as their basis. Such levels of cognition and knowledge, especially in relation to developed science, are the empirical and theoretical levels.
The empirical level of knowledge, science, is a level that is associated with the acquisition of knowledge through special procedures of observation and experiment, which is then subjected to a certain rational processing and recorded using a certain, often artificial, language. Data from observation and experiment, as the main scientific forms of direct research into the phenomena of reality, then act as the empirical basis from which theoretical research proceeds. Observations and experiments now take place in all sciences, including the social and human sciences.
The main form of knowledge at the empirical level is a fact, a scientific fact, factual knowledge, which is the result of primary processing and systematization of observational and experimental data. The basis of modern empirical knowledge is the facts of everyday consciousness and the facts of science. In this case, facts must be understood not as statements about something, not as certain units of “expression” of knowledge, but precisely as special elements of knowledge itself.
2. Theoretical level of research. The nature of scientific concepts.
The theoretical level of knowledge and science is associated with the fact that an object is represented on it from the side of its connections and patterns, obtained not only and not so much in experience, during observations and experiments, but already in the course of an autonomous thought process, through the use and construction of special abstractions , as well as arbitrary constructions of reason and reason as hypothetical elements with the help of which the space for comprehending the essence of the phenomena of reality is filled.
In the field of theoretical knowledge, constructions (idealizations) appear in which knowledge can go far beyond the limits of sensory experience, observational and experimental data, and even come into sharp contradiction with direct sensory data.
The contradictions between the theoretical and empirical levels of knowledge have an objective dialectical nature; in themselves they do not refute either empirical or theoretical positions. The decision in favor of one or the other depends only on the progress of further research and verification of their results in practice, in particular, by means of the observations and experiments themselves, applied on the basis of new theoretical concepts. In this case, the most important role is played by such a form of knowledge and cognition as a hypothesis.
3. The formation of scientific theory and the growth of theoretical knowledge.
The following scientific historical types of knowledge are known.
1. Early scientific type of knowledge.
This type of knowledge opens the era of systematic development of scientific knowledge. In it, on the one hand, traces of the natural philosophical and scholastic types of knowledge that preceded it are still clearly visible, and on the other, the emergence of fundamentally new elements that sharply contrast scientific types of knowledge with pre-scientific ones. Most often, this boundary of this type of knowledge, separating it from previous ones, is drawn at the turn of the 16th–17th centuries.
The early scientific type of knowledge is associated, first of all, with a new quality of knowledge. The main type of knowledge is declared to be experimental knowledge, factual knowledge. This created normal conditions for the development of theoretical knowledge - scientific theoretical knowledge.
2. Classical stage of cognition.
It took place from the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century. From this stage, science develops as a continuous disciplinary and at the same time professional tradition, critically regulating all its internal processes. Here a theory appears in the full sense of the word - I. Newton's theory of mechanics, which for almost two centuries remained the only scientific theory with which all the theoretical elements of natural science, and social cognition as well, were correlated.
The most significant changes, compared to early science, occurred in the field of knowledge. Knowledge becomes theoretical in the modern sense of the word, or almost modern, which was a huge step in overcoming the traditional gap between theoretical problems and the empirical approach.
3. Modern scientific type of knowledge.
This type of science continues to dominate today, at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. In modern science, the quality of objects of knowledge has radically changed. The integrity of the object, the subjects of individual sciences, and the subject of scientific knowledge itself was finally revealed. Fundamental changes are taking place in the means of modern science. Its empirical level takes on a completely different form; observation and experiment have become almost completely controlled by theoretical (advanced) knowledge, on the other hand, by knowledge about the observed.
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Scientific knowledge can be divided into two levels: theoretical and empirical. The first is based on inferences, the second - on experiments and interaction with the object under study. Despite their different natures, these methods are equally important for the development of science.
Empirical research
The basis of empirical knowledge is the direct practical interaction of the researcher and the object he is studying. It consists of experiments and observations. Empirical and theoretical knowledge are opposites - in the case of theoretical research, a person makes do with only his own ideas about the subject. As a rule, this method is the province of the humanities.
Empirical research cannot do without instruments and instrumental installations. These are means associated with organizing observations and experiments, but in addition to them there are also conceptual means. They are used as a special scientific language. It has a complex organization. Empirical and theoretical knowledge are focused on the study of phenomena and the dependencies that arise between them. By conducting experiments, a person can identify an objective law. This is also facilitated by the study of phenomena and their correlation.
Empirical methods of cognition
According to the scientific concept, empirical and theoretical knowledge consists of several methods. This is a set of steps necessary to solve a certain problem (in this case we are talking about identifying previously unknown patterns). The first empirical method is observation. It is a purposeful study of objects, which primarily relies on various senses (perceptions, sensations, ideas).
At its initial stage, observation gives an idea of the external characteristics of the object of knowledge. However, the ultimate goal of this is to determine the deeper and more intrinsic properties of the subject. A common misconception is the idea that scientific observation is passive - far from it.
Observation
Empirical observation is detailed in nature. It can be either direct or mediated by various technical devices and instruments (for example, a camera, telescope, microscope, etc.). As science develops, observation becomes more complex and complex. This method has several exceptional qualities: objectivity, certainty and unambiguous design. When using instruments, deciphering their readings plays an additional role.
In the social and human sciences, empirical and theoretical knowledge takes root heterogeneously. Observation in these disciplines is particularly difficult. It becomes dependent on the personality of the researcher, his principles and life attitudes, as well as the degree of interest in the subject.
Observation cannot be carried out without a certain concept or idea. It must be based on a certain hypothesis and record certain facts (in this case, only related and representative facts will be indicative).
Theoretical and empirical studies differ in detail. For example, observation has its own specific functions that are not typical for other methods of cognition. First of all, it is providing a person with information, without which further research and hypotheses are impossible. Observation is the fuel on which thinking runs. Without new facts and impressions there will be no new knowledge. In addition, it is through observation that one can compare and verify the truth of the results of preliminary theoretical studies.
Experiment
Different theoretical and empirical methods of cognition also differ in the degree of their intervention in the process being studied. A person can observe it strictly from the outside, or he can analyze its properties from his own experience. This function is performed by one of the empirical methods of cognition - experiment. In terms of importance and contribution to the final result of research, it is in no way inferior to observation.
An experiment is not only a purposeful and active human intervention in the course of the process under study, but also its change, as well as its reproduction in specially prepared conditions. This method of cognition requires much more effort than observation. During the experiment, the object of study is isolated from any outside influence. A clean and unpolluted environment is created. The experimental conditions are completely specified and controlled. Therefore, this method, on the one hand, corresponds to the natural laws of nature, and on the other hand, it is distinguished by an artificial essence determined by man.
Experiment structure
All theoretical and empirical methods have a certain ideological load. The experiment, which is carried out in several stages, is no exception. First of all, planning and step-by-step construction take place (the goal, means, type, etc. are determined). Then comes the stage of carrying out the experiment. Moreover, it occurs under perfect human control. At the end of the active phase, it is time to interpret the results.
Both empirical and theoretical knowledge differ in a certain structure. In order for an experiment to take place, the experimenters themselves, the object of the experiment, instruments and other necessary equipment, a methodology and a hypothesis are required, which is confirmed or refuted.
Devices and installations
Every year scientific research becomes more and more complex. They require increasingly modern technology, which allows them to study what is inaccessible to simple human senses. If previously scientists were limited to their own vision and hearing, now they have at their disposal unprecedented experimental facilities.
When using the device, it may have a negative impact on the object being studied. For this reason, the result of an experiment sometimes diverges from its original goals. Some researchers are trying to achieve such results on purpose. In science, this process is called randomization. If the experiment takes on a random nature, then its consequences become an additional object of analysis. The possibility of randomization is another feature that distinguishes empirical and theoretical knowledge.
Comparison, description and measurement
Comparison is the third empirical method of knowledge. This operation allows you to identify differences and similarities between objects. Empirical and theoretical analysis cannot be carried out without deep knowledge of the subject. In turn, many facts begin to play with new colors after the researcher compares them with another texture known to him. Comparison of objects is carried out within the framework of features that are significant for a particular experiment. Moreover, objects that are compared on one trait may be incomparable on their other characteristics. This empirical technique is based on analogy. It underlies what is important to science
Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge can be combined with each other. But research is almost never complete without description. This cognitive operation records the results of previous experience. Scientific notation systems are used for description: graphs, diagrams, drawings, diagrams, tables, etc.
The last empirical method of knowledge is measurement. This is carried out through special means. Measurement is necessary to determine the numerical value of the desired measured value. Such an operation must be carried out in accordance with strict algorithms and rules accepted in science.
Theoretical knowledge
In science, theoretical and empirical knowledge have different fundamental supports. In the first case, this is the detached use of rational methods and logical procedures, and in the second, direct interaction with the object. Theoretical knowledge uses intellectual abstractions. One of its most important methods is formalization - the display of knowledge in a symbolic and iconic form.
At the first stage of expressing thinking, familiar human language is used. It is characterized by complexity and constant variability, which is why it cannot be a universal scientific tool. The next stage of formalization is associated with the creation of formalized (artificial) languages. They have a specific purpose - a strict and precise expression of knowledge that cannot be achieved through natural speech. Such a symbol system can take the format of formulas. It is very popular in mathematics and others where you cannot do without numbers.
With the help of symbolism, a person eliminates ambiguous understanding of the recording, makes it shorter and clearer for further use. Not a single study, and therefore all scientific knowledge, can do without speed and simplicity in the use of its tools. Empirical and theoretical study equally need formalization, but it is at the theoretical level that it takes on extremely important and fundamental significance.
An artificial language, created within a narrow scientific framework, becomes a universal means of exchanging thoughts and communicating among specialists. This is the fundamental task of methodology and logic. These sciences are necessary to transmit information in an understandable, systematized form, free from the shortcomings of natural language.
The meaning of formalization
Formalization allows you to clarify, analyze, clarify and define concepts. The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge cannot do without them, therefore the system of artificial symbols has always played and will play a large role in science. Everyday and colloquial concepts seem obvious and clear. However, due to their ambiguity and uncertainty, they are not suitable for scientific research.
Formalization is especially important when analyzing alleged evidence. The sequence of formulas based on specialized rules is distinguished by the accuracy and rigor necessary for science. In addition, formalization is necessary for programming, algorithmization and computerization of knowledge.
Axiomatic method
Another method of theoretical research is the axiomatic method. It is a convenient way of deductively expressing scientific hypotheses. Theoretical and empirical sciences cannot be imagined without terms. Very often they arise due to the construction of axioms. For example, in Euclidean geometry at one time the fundamental terms of angle, straight line, point, plane, etc. were formulated.
Within the framework of theoretical knowledge, scientists formulate axioms - postulates that do not require proof and are the initial statements for further theory construction. An example of this is the idea that the whole is always greater than the part. Using axioms, a system for deriving new terms is constructed. Following the rules of theoretical knowledge, a scientist can obtain unique theorems from a limited number of postulates. At the same time, it is much more effectively used for teaching and classification than for discovering new patterns.
Hypothetico-deductive method
Although theoretical and empirical scientific methods are different, they are often used together. An example of such an application is using it to build new systems of closely intertwined hypotheses. Based on them, new statements concerning empirical, experimentally proven facts are derived. The method of drawing a conclusion from archaic hypotheses is called deduction. This term is familiar to many thanks to the novels about Sherlock Holmes. Indeed, the popular literary character often uses the deductive method in his investigations, with the help of which he builds a coherent picture of the crime from many disparate facts.
The same system operates in science. This method of theoretical knowledge has its own clear structure. First of all, you become familiar with the invoice. Then assumptions are made about the patterns and causes of the phenomenon being studied. For this, all kinds of logical techniques are used. Guesses are evaluated according to their probability (the most probable one is selected from this heap). All hypotheses are tested for consistency with logic and compatibility with basic scientific principles (for example, the laws of physics). Consequences are derived from the assumption, which are then verified through experiment. The hypothetico-deductive method is not so much a method of new discovery as a method of substantiating scientific knowledge. This theoretical tool was used by such great minds as Newton and Galileo.
