The basic principle of a systematic approach to studying organizations. Basic provisions of the systems approach and the concept of a system
A significant place in modern science is occupied by a systematic method of research or (as is often said) a systems approach.
Systems approach- a direction of research methodology, which is based on considering an object as an integral set of elements in a set of relationships and connections between them, that is, considering an object as a system.
Speaking about a systems approach, we can talk about a certain way of organizing our actions, one that covers any type of activity, identifying patterns and relationships in order to use them more effectively. At the same time, the systems approach is not so much a method of solving problems as a method of setting problems. As they say, “A question asked correctly is half the answer.” This is a qualitatively higher way of cognition than just an objective one.
Basic concepts of the systems approach: “system”, “element”, “composition”, “structure”, “functions”, “functioning” and “goal”. Let's expand on them to fully understand the systems approach.
System - an object whose functioning, necessary and sufficient to achieve its goal, is ensured (under certain environmental conditions) by a set of its constituent elements that are in appropriate relationships with each other.
Element - an internal source unit, a functional part of the system, the own structure of which is not considered, but only its properties necessary for the construction and operation of the system are taken into account. The “elementary” nature of an element lies in the fact that it is the limit of division of a given system, since its internal structure in a given system is ignored, and it appears in it as a phenomenon that in philosophy is characterized as simple. Although in hierarchical systems an element can also be considered as a system. What distinguishes an element from a part is that the word “part” only indicates the internal belonging of something to an object, while “element” always denotes a functional unit. Every element is a part, but not every part - element.
Compound - a complete (necessary and sufficient) set of elements of the system, taken outside its structure, that is, a set of elements.
Structure - relationships between elements in a system that are necessary and sufficient for the system to achieve its goal.
Functions - ways to achieve a goal based on the appropriate properties of the system.
Operation - the process of realizing the appropriate properties of the system, ensuring it achieves its goal.
Target is what the system must achieve based on its functioning. The goal may be a certain state of the system or another product of its functioning. The importance of the goal as a system-forming factor has already been noted. Let us emphasize it again: an object acts as a system only in relation to its goal. The goal, requiring certain functions for its achievement, determines through them the composition and structure of the system. For example, is a pile of building materials a system? Any absolute answer would be wrong. Regarding the purpose of housing - no. But as a barricade, a shelter, probably yes. A pile of building materials cannot be used as a house, even if all the necessary elements are present, for the reason that there are no necessary spatial relationships, that is, structures, between the elements. And without structure, they represent only a composition - a set of necessary elements.
The focus of the systems approach is not on studying the elements as such, but primarily on the structure of the object and the place of the elements in it. In general main points of the systems approach the following:
1. Study of the phenomenon of integrity and establishment of the composition of the whole and its elements.
2. Study of the patterns of connecting elements into a system, i.e. structure of the object, which forms the core of the systems approach.
3. In close connection with the study of structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural and functional analysis of the system.
4. Study of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems.
Methods for constructing and justifying theories occupy a special place in the methodology of science. Among them, explanation occupies an important place - the use of more specific, in particular, empirical knowledge to understand more general knowledge. The explanation could be:
a) structural, for example, how the motor is designed;
b) functional: how the motor operates;
c) causal: why and how it works.
When constructing a theory of complex objects, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete plays an important role.
At the initial stage, cognition moves from the real, objective, concrete to the development of abstractions that reflect individual aspects of the object being studied. By dissecting an object, thinking, as it were, kills it, imagining the object dismembered, dismembered by the scalpel of thought.
A systems approach is an approach in which any system (object) is considered as a set of interconnected elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), communication with the external environment, and feedback. This is the most complex approach. The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theory of systems, according to which each object in the process of its study should be considered as a large and complex system and, at the same time, as an element of a more general system.
A detailed definition of a systems approach also includes the mandatory study and practical use of the following its eight aspects:
1. system-element or system-complex, consisting in identifying the elements that make up a given system. In all social systems one can find material components (means of production and consumer goods), processes (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.) and ideas, scientifically-conscious interests of people and their communities;
2. system-structural, which consists in clarifying the internal connections and dependencies between the elements of a given system and allowing one to get an idea of the internal organization (structure) of the object under study;
3. system-functional, which involves identifying the functions for which the corresponding objects were created and exist;
4. system-targeted, meaning the need to scientifically determine the goals of the research and their mutual coordination;
5. system-resource, which consists in carefully identifying the resources required to solve a particular problem;
6. system-integration, consisting in determining the totality of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and peculiarity;
7. system-communication, meaning the need to identify the external connections of a given object with others, that is, its connections with the environment;
8. systemic-historical, which makes it possible to find out the conditions in time for the emergence of the object under study, the stages it has passed through, the current state, as well as possible prospects for development.
Basic assumptions of the systems approach:
1. There are systems in the world
2. System description is true
3. Systems interact with each other, and, therefore, everything in this world is interconnected
Basic principles of the systems approach:
Integrity, which allows us to simultaneously consider the system as a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.
Hierarchical structure, i.e. the presence of many (at least two) elements located on the basis of the subordination of lower-level elements to higher-level elements. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any specific organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: the managing and the managed. One is subordinate to the other.
Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.
Plurality, which allows the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.
Levels of a systematic approach:
There are several types of systems approach: complex, structural, holistic. It is necessary to separate these concepts.
An integrated approach presupposes the presence of a set of object components or applied research methods. In this case, neither the relationships between the components, nor the completeness of their composition, nor the relationship of the components with the whole are taken into account.
The structural approach involves studying the composition (subsystems) and structures of an object. With this approach, there is still no correlation between subsystems (parts) and the system (whole). Decomposition of systems into subsystems is not carried out in the only way.
In a holistic approach, relationships are studied not only between the parts of an object, but also between the parts and the whole.
From the word “system” you can form others - “systemic”, “systematize”, “systematic”. In a narrow sense, a systems approach refers to the application of systems methods to study real physical, biological, social and other systems. The systems approach in a broad sense also includes the use of system methods to solve problems of systematics, planning and organizing a complex and systematic experiment.
A systematic approach contributes to the adequate formulation of problems in specific sciences and the development of an effective strategy for their study. The methodology and specificity of the systems approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the research on revealing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.
The 1970s saw a boom in the use of the systems approach throughout the world. The systems approach was applied in all spheres of human existence. However, practice has shown that in systems with high entropy (uncertainty), which is largely due to “non-system factors” (human influence), a systematic approach may not give the expected effect. The last remark indicates that “the world is not as systemic” as the founders of the systems approach imagined it.
Professor Prigozhin A.I. This is how the limitations of the systems approach are defined:
1. Consistency means certainty. But the world is uncertain. Uncertainty is essentially present in the reality of human relationships, goals, information, and situations. It cannot be completely overcome, and sometimes it fundamentally dominates certainty. The market environment is very mobile, unstable and only to some extent modelable, knowable and controllable. The same is true for the behavior of organizations and employees.
2. Systematicity means consistency, but, say, value orientations in an organization and even in one of its participants are sometimes contradictory to the point of incompatibility and do not form any system. Of course, various motivations introduce some consistency into work behavior, but always only partly. We often find this in the totality of management decisions, and even in management groups and teams.
3. Systematicity means integrity, but, say, the client base of wholesale, retail firms, banks, etc. does not form any integrity, since it cannot always be integrated and each client has several suppliers and can change them endlessly. Information flows in the organization also lack integrity. Isn’t that the case with the organization’s resources?”
35. Nature and society. Natural and artificial. The concept of "noosphere"
Nature in philosophy is understood as everything that exists, the whole world, subject to study by the methods of natural science. Society is a special part of nature, identified as a form and product of human activity. The relationship between society and nature is understood as the relationship between the system of human society and the habitat of human civilization.
Systems approach represents a direction in the methodology of scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the consideration of objects as systems.
The essence of the joint ventureconsists, firstly, in understanding the object of research as a system and, secondly, in understanding the process of studying the object as systemic in its logic and the means used.
Like any methodology, a systems approach implies the presence of certain principles and ways of organizing activities, in this case activities related to the analysis and synthesis of systems.
The systems approach is based on the principles of purpose, duality, integrity, complexity, plurality and historicism. Let us consider in more detail the content of the listed principles.
Principle of purpose focuses on the fact that when studying an object it is necessary first of all identify the purpose of its functioning.
We should be primarily interested not in how the system is built, but why it exists, what is the goal of it, what caused it, what are the means of achieving the goal?
The goal principle is constructive if two conditions are met:
The goal must be formulated in such a way that the degree of its achievement can be assessed (set) quantitatively;
The system must have a mechanism to assess the degree to which a given goal has been achieved.
2. The principle of duality follows from the principle of purpose and means that the system should be considered as part of a higher-level system and at the same time as an independent part, acting as a single whole in interaction with the environment. In turn, each element of the system has its own structure and can also be considered as a system.
The relationship with the principle of purpose is that the purpose of the operation of an object must be subordinated to solving the problems of the functioning of a higher-level system. Goal is a category external to the system. It is given to her by a system of a higher level, of which this system is included as an element.
3.Principle of integrity requires considering an object as something isolated from a set of other objects, acting as a whole in relation to the environment, having its own specific functions and developing according to its own laws. At the same time, the need to study individual aspects is not denied.
4.The principle of complexity indicates the need to study an object as a complex formation and, if the complexity is very high, it is necessary to consistently simplify the representation of the object in such a way as to preserve all its essential properties.
5.The principle of plurality requires the researcher to present a description of the object at multiple levels: morphological, functional, informational.
Morphological level gives an idea of the structure of the system. The morphological description cannot be exhaustive. The depth of the description, the level of detail, that is, the choice of elements into which the description does not penetrate, is determined by the purpose of the system. The morphological description is hierarchical.
The specification of morphology is given at as many levels as are required to create an idea of the basic properties of the system.
Functional Description associated with the transformation of energy and information. Every object is interesting primarily for the result of its existence, the place it occupies among other objects in the surrounding world.
Information Description gives an idea of the organization of the system, i.e. about information relationships between system elements. It complements the functional and morphological descriptions.
Each level of description has its own specific laws. All levels are closely interconnected. When making changes at one level, it is necessary to analyze possible changes at other levels.
6. The principle of historicism obliges the researcher to reveal the past of the system and identify trends and patterns of its development in the future.
Predicting the behavior of a system in the future is a necessary condition for the fact that decisions made to improve an existing system or create a new one ensure the effective functioning of the system for a given time.
SYSTEM ANALYSIS
System analysis represents a set of scientific methods and practical techniques for solving various problems based on a systematic approach.
The methodology of systems analysis is based on three concepts: problem, problem solution and system.
Problem- is a discrepancy or difference between the existing and required state of affairs in any system.
The required position can be necessary or desired. The necessary state is dictated by objective conditions, and the desired state is determined by subjective prerequisites, which are based on the objective conditions of the functioning of the system.
Problems existing in one system are usually not equivalent. To compare problems and determine their priority, attributes are used: importance, scale, generality, relevance, etc.
Identifying the problem carried out by identification symptoms that determine the system’s inadequacy for its purpose or its insufficient efficiency. Symptoms that appear systematically form a trend.
Symptom identification is carried out by measuring and analyzing various indicators of the system, the normal values of which are known. A deviation from the norm is a symptom.
Solution consists in eliminating the differences between the existing and required state of the system. Elimination of differences can be done either by improving the system or by replacing it with a new one.
The decision to improve or replace is made taking into account the following provisions. If the direction of improvement provides a significant increase in the life cycle of the system and the costs are incomparably small in relation to the cost of developing the system, then the decision to improve is justified. Otherwise, you should consider replacing it with a new one.
A system is created to solve the problem.
Main systems analysis components are:
1. The purpose of system analysis.
2. The goal that the system must achieve in the process of: functioning.
3. Alternatives or options for building or improving the system, through which it is possible to solve the problem.
4. Resources necessary to analyze and improve the existing system or create a new one.
5. Criteria or indicators that allow you to compare different alternatives and select the most preferable ones.
7. A model that links together the goal, alternatives, resources and criteria.
Methodology for conducting system analysis
1.System Description:
a) determining the purpose of system analysis;
b) determining the goals, purpose and functions of the system (external and internal);
c) determining the role and place in the higher-level system;
d) functional description (input, output, process, feedback, restrictions);
e) structural description (discovery of relationships, stratification and decomposition of the system);
f) information description;
g) description of the life cycle of the system (creation, operation, including improvement, destruction);
2.Identifying and describing the problem:
a) determining the composition of performance indicators and methods for calculating them;
b) Selection of functionality for assessing the effectiveness of the system and setting requirements for it (determining the necessary (desired) state of affairs);
b) determining the actual state of affairs (calculating the efficiency of the existing system using the selected functionality);
c) establishing a discrepancy between the necessary (desired) and actual state of affairs and its assessment;
d) history of the occurrence of nonconformity and analysis of the causes of its occurrence (symptoms and trends);
e) formulation of the problem;
f) identifying connections between the problem and other problems;
g) forecasting the development of the problem;
h) assessment of the consequences of the problem and conclusion about its relevance.
3. Selection and implementation of directions for solving the problem:
a) structuring the problem (identifying subproblems)
b) identifying bottlenecks in the system;
c) research into the alternative “improving the system - creating a new system”;
d) determining directions for solving the problem (selection of alternatives);
e) assessment of the feasibility of directions for solving the problem;
f) comparison of alternatives and selection of an effective direction;
g) coordination and approval of the chosen direction for solving the problem;
h) highlighting the stages of solving the problem;
i) implementation of the chosen direction;
j) checking its effectiveness.
a methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop methods for research and design of complex objects - systems of different types and classes.
Excellent definition
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systems approach
SYSTEMS APPROACH- a direction of philosophy and methodology of science, special scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the study of objects as systems. S.P. focuses research on revealing the integrity of an object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture. The concept of "S. P." (English “systems approach”) began to be widely used from the late 60s - early 70s. 20th century in English and Russian. philosophical and systems literature. Close in content to “S. P." are the concepts of “systems research”, “systematic principle”, “general systems theory” and “systems analysis”. S. p. is an interdisciplinary philosophical, methodological and scientific direction of research. Without directly solving philosophical problems, S. p. needs a philosophical interpretation of its provisions. An important part of the philosophical justification of S. p. is systematic principle. Historically, the ideas of a systematic study of objects of the world and processes of cognition arose in ancient philosophy (Plato, Aristotle), were widely developed in the philosophy of modern times (I. Kant, F. Schelling), and were studied by K. Marx in relation to the economic structure of capitalist society. The theory of biological evolution created by Charles Darwin formulated not only an idea, but an idea of the reality of supraorganism levels of life organization (the most important prerequisite for systems thinking in biology). S.p. represents a certain stage in the development of methods of cognition, research and design activities, methods of describing and explaining the nature of analyzed or artificially created objects. The principles of S. p. replace those widespread in the 17th-19th centuries. concepts of mechanism and oppose them. S.P. methods are most widely used in the study of complex developing objects—multilevel, hierarchical, self-organizing biological, psychological, social, and other systems, large technical systems, “man-machine” systems, etc. The most important tasks of scientific research include: 1) development of means for representing objects being studied and constructed as systems; 2) construction of generalized models of the system, models of different classes and specific properties of systems; 3) study of the structure of systems theories and various system concepts and developments. In systems research, the analyzed object is considered as a certain set of elements, the interconnection of which determines the integral properties of this set. The main emphasis is on identifying the variety of connections and relationships that take place both within the object under study and in its relationships with the external environment. The properties of an object as an integral system are determined not only and not so much by the summation of the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of its structure, special system-forming, integrative connections of the object under consideration. To understand the behavior of systems (primarily purposeful), it is necessary to identify the control processes implemented by a given system - the forms of information transfer from one subsystem to another and the ways in which some parts of the system influence others, the coordination of the lower levels of the system by elements of its highest level of control, the influence on the last of all other subsystems. Significant importance in scientific research is given to identifying the probabilistic nature of the behavior of the objects under study. An important feature of scientific research is that not only the object, but also the research process itself acts as a complex system, the task of which, in particular, is to combine various models of the object into a single whole. System objects are very often not indifferent to the process of their research and in many cases can have a significant impact on it. In the context of the unfolding of the scientific and technological revolution in the second half of the 20th century. There is a further clarification of the content of the scientific process - the disclosure of its philosophical foundations, the development of logical and methodological principles, and further progress in the construction of a general theory of systems. S. p. is a theoretical and methodological basis system analysis. The prerequisite for the penetration of scientific research into science in the 20th century. there was, first of all, a transition to a new type of scientific problems: in a number of areas of science, problems of the organization and functioning of complex objects began to occupy a central place; cognition operates with systems, the boundaries and composition of which are far from obvious and require special research in each individual case. In the second half of the 20th century. tasks of a similar type arise in social practice: in social management, instead of the previously prevailing local, sectoral tasks and principles, large complex problems begin to play a leading role, requiring close interconnection of economic, social, environmental and other aspects of social life (for example, global problems, complex problems of socio-economic development of countries and regions, problems of creating modern industries, complexes, urban development, environmental protection measures, etc.). The change in the type of scientific and practical problems is accompanied by the emergence of general scientific and special scientific concepts, which are characterized by the use in one form or another of the basic ideas of scientific research. Along with the spread of the principles of scientific research to new areas of scientific knowledge and practice, from the mid-20s V. The systematic development of these principles in methodological terms begins. Initially, methodological studies were grouped around the tasks of constructing a general theory of systems. However, the development of research in this direction has shown that the totality of problems in the methodology of systems research significantly goes beyond the scope of the tasks of developing only a general theory of systems. To designate this broader sphere of methodological problems, the term “S. P.". S. p. does not exist in the form of a strict theoretical or methodological concept: it performs its heuristic functions, remaining a set of cognitive principles, the main meaning of which is the appropriate orientation of specific research. This orientation is accomplished in two ways. First, the substantive principles of scientific research make it possible to document the insufficiency of old, traditional subjects of study for setting and solving new problems. Secondly, the concepts and principles of scientific research significantly help to construct new subjects of study, setting the structural and typological characteristics of these subjects and thus contributing to the formation of constructive research programs. The role of scientific research in the development of scientific, technical, and practical-oriented knowledge is as follows. First, the concepts and principles of social science reveal a broader cognitive reality compared to that which was recorded in previous knowledge (for example, the concept of the biosphere in the concept of V. I. Vernadsky, the concept of biogeocenosis in modern ecology, the optimal approach in economic management and planning, etc.). Secondly, within the framework of scientific research, new explanation schemes are being developed, in comparison with the previous stages of the development of scientific knowledge, which are based on the search for specific mechanisms of the integrity of an object and the identification of the typology of its connections. Thirdly, from the thesis about the variety of types of connections of an object, which is important for social science, it follows that any complex object allows for several divisions. In this case, the criterion for choosing the most adequate division of the object being studied can be the extent to which it is possible to construct a “unit” of analysis that allows one to record the integral properties of the object, its structure and dynamics. The breadth of the principles and basic concepts of scientific research puts it in close connection with other methodological areas of modern science. In terms of its cognitive attitudes, S. p. has much in common with structuralism and structural-functional analysis, with which it is connected not only by operating with the concepts of system, structure and function, but also by an emphasis on the study of various types of connections of an object. At the same time, the principles of social security have a broader and more flexible content; they were not subjected to such rigid conceptualization and absolutization, which was characteristic of some interpretations of structuralism and structural-functional analysis. I.V. Blauberg, E.G. Yudin, V.N. Sadovsky Lit.: Problems of system research methodology. M., 1970; Blauberg I.V., Yudin E.G. Formation and essence of the systems approach. M., 1973; Sadovsky V.N. Foundations of general systems theory: Logical and methodological analysis. M., 1974; Uemov A.I. Systems approach and general systems theory. M., 1978; Afanasyev V.G. Systematicity and society. M., 1980; Blauberg I.V. The problem of integrity and a systematic approach. M., 1997; Yudin E.G. Methodology of science: Systematicity. Activity. M, 1997; Systems research. Yearbook. Vol. 1-26. M., 1969-1998; Churchman C.W. The Systems Approach. N.Y., 1968; Trends in General Systems Theory. N.Y., 1972; General Systems Theory. Yearbook. Vol. 1-30. N.Y., 1956-85; Critical Systems Thinking. Directed Readings. N.Y., 1991.
The essence of the systems approach
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article topic: | The essence of the systems approach |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Education |
In modern scientific literature, the systems approach is most often perceived as a direction in the methodology of scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the consideration of objects as systems.
The systems approach orients researchers toward revealing the integrity of an object, identifying the diverse connections in it and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.
The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theory of systems, according to which each object in the process of its study should be considered as a large and complex system and, at the same time, as an element of a more general system.
The essence of the systems approach is essentially that relatively independent components are considered not in isolation, but in their interrelation, development and movement. As one component of the system changes, others also change. This makes it possible to identify integrative system properties and qualitative characteristics that are absent in the elements that make up the system.
Based on the approach, a systematic principle has been developed. The principle of the systems approach is to consider the elements of the system as interconnected and interacting to achieve the global goal of the system’s functioning. A feature of the systems approach is the optimization of the functioning not of individual elements, but of the entire system as a whole.
The systems approach is based on a holistic vision of the objects or processes under study and seems to be the most universal method of research and analysis of complex systems. Objects are considered as systems consisting of naturally structured and functionally organized elements. A systematic approach is the systematization and unification of objects or knowledge about them by establishing significant connections between them. The systems approach involves a consistent transition from the general to the specific, when the basis of consideration is a specific final goal to achieve which this system is formed. This approach means that each system is an integrated whole even when it consists of separate, disconnected subsystems.
Basic concepts of the systems approach: “system”, “structure” and “component”.
“A system is a set of components that are in relationships and connections with each other, the interaction of which gives rise to a new quality that is not inherent in these components individually.”
A component is understood as any object connected to other objects in a complex complex.
Structure is interpreted as the order of design of elements into a system, the principle of its structure; it reflects the shape of the arrangement of elements and the nature of the interaction of their sides and properties. The structure connects and transforms elements, imparting a certain commonality, causing the emergence of new qualities that are not inherent in any of them. An object is a system if it must be divided into interconnected and interacting components. These parts, in turn, usually have their own structure and, in connection with this, are presented as subsystems of the original, large system.
The components of the system form system-forming connections.
The main principles of the systems approach are:
Integrity, which allows us to simultaneously consider the system as a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.
Hierarchical structure, that is, the presence of many (at least two) elements located on the basis of the subordination of lower-level elements to higher-level elements.
Structuring, which allows you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.
Multiplicity, which allows the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.
For example, the education system is perceived as a system that includes the following components: 1) federal state educational standards and federal state requirements, educational standards, educational programs of various types, levels and (or) orientations; 2) organizations carrying out educational activities, teaching staff, students and parents (legal representatives) of minor students; 3) federal state bodies and government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, exercising public administration in the field of education, and local government bodies, exercising management in the field of education, advisory, advisory and other bodies created by them; 4) organizations providing educational activities, assessing the quality of education; 5) associations of legal entities, employers and their associations, public associations operating in the field of education.
In turn, each component of the education system acts as a system. For example, the system of organizations carrying out educational activities includes the following components: 1) preschool educational organizations 2) general educational organizations 3) professional educational organizations of higher education. educational organizations 4) educational organizations of higher education.
Educational organizations of higher education can also be considered as a system that includes the following components: institutes, academies, universities.
The presented hierarchy of systems included in the education system are located on the basis of the subordination of lower-level components to higher-level components; All components are closely interconnected and form an integral unity.
The third level of methodology - specifically scientific - this is the methodology of a specific science, it is based on scientific approaches, concepts, theories, problems specific to scientific knowledge in a specific science, as a rule, these foundations were developed by scientists of a given science (there are scientists of other sciences).
For pedagogy, this level of methodology is, first of all, pedagogical and psychological theories, concepts for private didactics (methods of teaching individual subjects) - theories in the field of didactics, for research in the field of education methods - basic concepts, theories of education. This level of methodology in a particular scientific study is most often its theoretical basis for the study.
The specific scientific level of pedagogy methodology includes: personal, activity-based, ethnopedagogical, axiological, anthropological approaches, etc.
Activity approach. It has been established that activity is the basis, means and factor of personality development. The activity approach involves considering the object under study within the framework of its activity system. It involves the inclusion of teachers in various activities: learning, work, communication, play.
A personal approach means focusing the design and implementation of the pedagogical process on the individual as a goal, subject, result and the main criterion of its effectiveness. It urgently demands recognition of the uniqueness of the individual, his intellectual and moral freedom, and the right to respect. Within the framework of this approach, it is assumed that there will be reliance on the natural process of self-development of the inclinations and creative potential of the individual, and the creation of appropriate conditions for this.
The axiological (or value) approach means the implementation of universal and national values in research and education.
The ethnopedagogical approach involves the organization and implementation of research, the process of education and training based on the national traditions of the people, their culture, national-ethnic rituals, customs, and habits. National culture gives a specific flavor to the environment in which a child grows and is formed, and various educational institutions operate.
An anthropological approach, which means the systematic use of data from all sciences about man as a subject of education and their consideration in the construction and implementation of the pedagogical process.
To carry out transformation, it is extremely important for a person to change the ideal way of his actions, the intention of his activity. In this regard, he uses a special means - thinking, the degree of development of which determines the degree of human well-being and freedom. It is a conscious attitude towards the world that allows a person to realize his function as a subject of activity, actively transforming the world and himself on the basis of the processes of mastering universal human culture and culture creation, self-analysis of the results of activity.
This, in turn, requires the use of a dialogical approach, which follows from the fact that the essence of a person is much richer, more versatile and more complex than his activities. The dialogical approach is based on faith in the positive potential of man, in his unlimited creative possibilities for constant development and self-improvement. It is important that the activity of the individual and his needs for self-improvement are not considered in isolation. Οʜᴎ develop only in conditions of relationships with other people, built on the principle of dialogue. The dialogical approach in unity with the personal and activity approach constitutes the essence of the methodology of humanistic pedagogy.
The implementation of the above methodological principles is carried out in conjunction with the cultural approach. Culture is generally understood as a specific way of human activity. Being a universal characteristic of activity, it, in turn, sets a social-humanistic program and predetermines the direction of a particular type of activity, its typological value characteristics and results. However, a person’s mastery of culture presupposes his mastery of methods of creative activity.
A person, a child lives and studies in a specific sociocultural environment, belongs to a specific ethnic group. In this regard, the cultural approach is transformed into an ethnopedagogical one. This transformation reveals the unity of the universal, national and individual.
One of the reviving approaches is the anthropological approach, which means the systematic use of data from all sciences about man as a subject of education and their consideration in the construction and implementation of the pedagogical process.
Technological level methodology constitute the research methodology and technique, ᴛ.ᴇ. a set of procedures that ensure the receipt of reliable experimental material and its primary processing, after which it can be included in the body of scientific knowledge. This level includes research methods.
Methods of pedagogical research - ways and techniques of understanding the objective laws of teaching, upbringing and development.
Methods of pedagogical research are divided into groups:
1.Methods of studying teaching experience: observation, survey (conversation, interview, questionnaire), study of written, graphic and creative works of students, pedagogical documentation, testing, experiment, etc.
2. Theoretical methods of pedagogical research: induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, generalization, work with literature (compiling a bibliography; summarizing; note-taking; annotating; citing), etc.
3.Mathematical methods: registration, ranking, scaling, etc.
The essence of the systems approach is the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Essence of a systems approach" 2017, 2018.
General characteristics of the systems approach
The concept of a systems approach, its principles and methodology
System analysis is the most constructive direction used for practical applications of systems theory to control problems. The constructiveness of system analysis is due to the fact that it offers a methodology for carrying out work that allows us not to lose from consideration the essential factors that determine the construction of effective management systems in specific conditions.
Principles are understood as basic, initial provisions, some general rules of cognitive activity, which indicate the direction of scientific knowledge, but do not provide an indication of a specific truth. These are developed and historically generalized requirements for the cognitive process, fulfilling the most important regulatory roles in cognition. Justification of principles is the initial stage of constructing a methodological concept
The most important principles of system analysis include the principles of elementarism, universal connection, development, integrity, systematicity, optimality, hierarchy, formalization, normativity and goal-setting. System analysis is represented as an integral of these principles.
Methodological approaches in systems analysis combine a set of techniques and methods for implementing system activities that have developed in the practice of analytical activities. The most important among them are systemic, structural-functional, constructive, complex, situational, innovative, target, activity-based, morphological and program-targeted approaches.
The most important, if not the main part of the system analysis methodology are methods. Their arsenal is quite large. The authors' approaches to identifying them are also varied. But methods of system analysis have not yet received a sufficiently convincing classification in science.
Systematic approach to management
2.1 The concept of a systems approach to management and its significance
A systematic approach to management considers an organization as an integral set of various types of activities and elements that are in contradictory unity and in relationship with the external environment, involves taking into account the influence of all factors affecting it, and focuses on the relationships between its elements.
Management actions do not just functionally flow from each other, they have an impact on each other. Therefore, if changes occur in one part of the organization, they inevitably cause changes in the rest, and ultimately the organization (system) as a whole.
So, the systems approach to management is based on the fact that every organization is a system consisting of parts, each of which has its own goals. The leader must proceed from the fact that in order to achieve the overall goals of the organization, it is necessary to consider it as a single system. At the same time, it is necessary to strive to identify and evaluate the interaction of all its parts and combine them on a basis that will allow the organization as a whole to effectively achieve its goals. The value of a systems approach is that it allows managers to more easily align their specific work with the work of the organization as a whole if they understand the system and their role within it. This is especially important for the CEO because the systems approach encourages him to maintain the necessary balance between the needs of individual departments and the goals of the entire organization. The systems approach forces him to think about the flow of information passing through the entire system, and also emphasizes the importance of communications.
A modern leader must have systems thinking. Systems thinking not only contributes to the development of new ideas about the organization (in particular, special attention is paid to the integrated nature of the enterprise, as well as the paramount importance and importance of information systems), but also ensures the development of useful mathematical tools and techniques that greatly facilitate the adoption of management decisions and the use of more advanced planning and control systems.
Thus, the systems approach allows for a comprehensive assessment of any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. It helps to analyze any situation within a single system, identifying the nature of the input, process and output problems. The use of a systematic approach allows you to best organize the decision-making process at all levels of the management system.
2.2 System structure with control
A controlled system includes three subsystems (Fig. 2.1): a control system, a control object and a communication system. Systems with control, or purposeful ones, are called cybernetic. These include technical, biological, organizational, social, and economic systems. The control system together with the communication system forms a control system.
The main element of organizational and technical management systems is the decision maker (DM) - an individual or group of individuals who has the right to make final decisions on the choice of one of several control actions.
Rice. 2.1. Controlled system
The main groups of control system (CS) functions are:
· decision-making functions - content transformation functions;
· information ;
· routine information processing functions ;
· information exchange functions.
Decision-making functions are expressed in the creation of new information during analysis, planning (forecasting) and operational management (regulation, coordination of actions).
Functions cover accounting, control, storage, search,
display, replication, transformation of the form of information, etc. This group of information transformation functions does not change its meaning, i.e. These are routine functions not related to meaningful information processing.
The group of functions is associated with bringing the generated impacts to the control object (OU) and the exchange of information between decision makers (access restriction, receipt (collection), transmission of control information in text, graphic, tabular and other forms by telephone, data transmission systems, etc. .).
2.3 Ways to improve control systems
Improving control systems comes down to reducing the duration of the control cycle and improving the quality of control actions (decisions). These requirements are contradictory. For a given control system performance, reducing the duration of the control cycle leads to the need to reduce the amount of processed information, and, consequently, to a decrease in the quality of decisions.
Simultaneous satisfaction of requirements is possible only on the condition that the performance of the control system (CS) and the communication system (CS) for transmitting and processing information will be increased, and the productivity will increase
both elements must be consistent. This is the starting point for resolving issues to improve management.
The main ways to improve control systems are as follows.
1. Optimization of the number of management personnel.
2. Use of new ways of organizing the work of the control system.
3. Application of new methods for solving management problems.
4. Changing the structure of the management system.
5. Redistribution of functions and tasks in the management system.
6. Mechanization of managerial work.
7. Automation.
Let's look briefly at each of these paths:
1. The control system is, first of all, people. The most natural way to increase productivity is to intelligently increase the number of people.
2. The organization of work of management personnel must be constantly improved.
3. The path to applying new methods for solving management problems is somewhat one-sided, since in most cases it is aimed at obtaining better solutions and requires more time.
4. When the OS becomes more complex, as a rule, the simple structure of the OS is replaced with a more complex one, most often of a hierarchical type; when the OS is simplified, the opposite is true. The introduction of feedback into the system is also considered a change in structure. As a result of the transition to a more complex structure, management functions are distributed among a larger number of elements of the control system and the performance of the control system increases.
5. If subordinate management bodies can independently solve only a very limited range of tasks, then, consequently, the central management body will be overloaded, and vice versa. An optimal compromise between centralization and decentralization is necessary. It is impossible to solve this problem once and for all, since the functions and management tasks in systems are constantly changing.
6. Since information always requires a certain material medium on which it is recorded, stored and transmitted, physical actions are obviously necessary to ensure the information process in the control system. The use of various means of mechanization can significantly increase the efficiency of this aspect of management. Mechanization means include means for performing computational work, transmitting signals and commands, documenting information and reproducing documents. In particular, the use of a personal computer as a typewriter refers to mechanization, not automation.
management.
7. The essence of automation is to use
Computer to enhance the intellectual capabilities of decision makers.
All the previously discussed paths lead in one way or another to increasing the productivity of the CS and SS, but, fundamentally, do not increase the productivity of mental work. This is their limitation.
2.4 Rules for applying a systematic approach to management
The systematic approach to management is based on in-depth research into the causal relationships and patterns of development of socio-economic processes. And since there are connections and patterns, that means there are certain rules. Let's consider the basic rules for using systems in management.
Rule 1. It is not the components themselves that constitute the essence of the whole (system), but on the contrary, the whole as a primary one gives rise to the components of the system during its division or formation - this is the basic principle of the system.
Example. A company as a complex open socio-economic system is a collection of interconnected departments and production units. First, you should consider the company as a whole, its properties and connections with the external environment, and only then - the components of the company. The company as a whole exists not because, say, a patternmaker works in it, but, on the contrary, a patternmaker works because the company functions. In small, simple systems there may be exceptions: the system functions due to an exceptional component.
Rule 2. The number of system components that determine its size should be minimal, but sufficient to achieve the goals of the system. The structure of, for example, a production system is a combination of organizational and production structures.
Rule 3. The structure of the system must be flexible, with the least number of rigid connections, capable of quickly being reconfigured to perform new tasks, provide new services, etc. System mobility is one of the conditions for its rapid adaptation (adaptation) to market requirements.
Rule 4. The structure of the system should be such that changes in the connections of system components have minimal impact on the functioning of the system. To do this, it is necessary to justify the level of delegation of powers by management subjects, to ensure optimal autonomy and independence of management objects in socio-economic and production systems.
Rule 5. In the context of the development of global competition and international integration, one should strive to increase the degree of openness of the system, provided that its economic, technical, information, and legal security is ensured.
Rule 6. To increase the validity of investments in innovative and other projects, it is necessary to study the dominant (predominant, strongest) and recessive characteristics of the system and invest in the development of the first, most effective ones.
Rule 7. When forming the mission and goals of the system, priority should be given to the interests of the higher-level system as a guarantee of solving global problems.
Rule 8. Of all the quality indicators of systems, priority should be given to their reliability as a set of manifested properties of failure-free operation, durability, maintainability and storability.
Rule 9. The effectiveness and prospects of the system are achieved by optimizing its goals, structure, management system and other parameters. Therefore, the strategy for the operation and development of the system should be formed on the basis of optimization models.
Rule 10. When formulating the goals of the system, the uncertainty of information support should be taken into account. The probabilistic nature of situations and information at the stage of forecasting goals reduces the real effectiveness of innovation.
Rule 11. When formulating a system strategy, it should be remembered that the goals of the system and its components in semantic and quantitative terms, as a rule, do not coincide. However, all components must perform a specific task to achieve the goal of the system. If without any component it is possible to achieve the goal of the system, then this component is redundant, contrived, or the result of poor-quality structuring of the system. This is a manifestation of the emergence property of the system.
Rule 12. When constructing the structure of the system and organizing its functioning, it should be taken into account that almost all processes are continuous and interdependent. The system operates and develops on the basis of contradictions, competition, diversity of forms of functioning and development, and the system’s ability to learn. The system exists as long as it functions.
Rule 13. When forming a system strategy, it is necessary to ensure alternative ways of its functioning and development based on forecasting various situations. The most unpredictable parts of the strategy should be planned using several options that take into account different situations.
Rule 14. When organizing the functioning of the system, it should be taken into account that its effectiveness is not equal to the sum of the operating efficiencies of the subsystems (components). When the components interact, a positive (additional) or negative synergy effect occurs. To obtain a positive synergy effect, it is necessary to have a high level of organization (low entropy) of the system.
Rule 15. In conditions of rapidly changing environmental parameters, the system must be able to quickly adapt to these changes. The most important tools for increasing the adaptability of the functioning of a system (company) are strategic market segmentation and the design of goods and technologies on the principles of standardization and aggregation.
Rule 16. The only way to develop organizational, economic and production systems is innovation. The introduction of innovations (in the form of patents, know-how, R&D results, etc.) in the field of new products, technologies, production methods, management, etc. serves as a factor in the development of society.
3. An example of the application of system analysis in management
The manager of a large office building was receiving an increasing stream of complaints from employees who worked in the building. Complaints stated that the wait for the elevator was too long. The manager turned to a company specializing in lifting systems for help. The engineers of this company carried out timing tests that showed that the complaints were well founded. It was found that the average waiting time for an elevator exceeds accepted standards. The experts told the manager that there were three possible ways to solve the problem: increasing the number of elevators, replacing existing elevators with high-speed ones, and introducing a special operating mode for elevators, i.e. transfer of each elevator to serve only certain floors. The manager asked the firm to evaluate all of these alternatives and provide him with estimates of the expected costs of implementing each option.
After some time, the company complied with this request. It turned out that the first two options required costs that, from the manager's point of view, were not justified by the income generated by the building, and the third option, as it turned out, did not provide a sufficient reduction in waiting time. The manager was not satisfied with any of these proposals. He postponed further negotiations with this company for some time to consider all the options and make a decision.
When a manager is faced with a problem that seems insoluble to him, he often finds it necessary to discuss it with some of his subordinates. The group of employees our manager approached included a young psychologist who worked in the hiring department that maintained and repaired this large building. When the manager outlined the essence of the problem to the assembled employees, this young man was very surprised by its very formulation. He said he couldn't understand why employees, who were known to waste a lot of time every day, were unhappy about having to wait minutes for an elevator. Before he had time to express his doubt, the thought flashed through his mind that he had found an explanation. Although employees often waste their working hours uselessly, at this time they are busy with something, although unproductive, but enjoyable. But while waiting for the elevator, they are simply languishing from idleness. At this guess, the young psychologist's face lit up, and he blurted out his proposal. The manager accepted it, and a few days later the problem was solved at the most minimal cost. The psychologist suggested hanging large mirrors on each floor near the elevator. These mirrors, naturally, gave something to do to the women waiting for the elevator, but the men, who were now engrossed in looking at the women, pretending not to pay any attention to them, also stopped getting bored.
No matter how reliable this story is, the point it illustrates is extremely important. The psychologist was looking at exactly the same problem as the engineers, but he approached it from a different perspective, determined by his education and interests. In this case, the psychologist’s approach turned out to be the most effective. Obviously, the problem was solved by changing the set goal, which was not reduced to reducing the waiting time, but to creating the impression that it had become shorter.
Thus, we need to simplify systems, operations, decision-making procedures, etc. But this simplicity is not so easy to achieve. This is a most difficult task. The old saying, “I am writing you a long letter because I don’t have time to make it short,” can be paraphrased: “I am making it complicated because I don’t know how to make it simple.”
CONCLUSION
The systems approach, its main features, as well as its main features in relation to management are briefly discussed.
The work describes the structure, ways of improvement, rules for applying the systems approach and some other aspects encountered in the management of systems, organizations, enterprises, and the creation of management systems for various purposes.
The application of systems theory to management allows the manager to “see” the organization in the unity of its constituent parts, which are inextricably intertwined with the outside world.
The value of a systems approach to managing any organization includes two aspects of a manager’s work. Firstly, this is the desire to achieve the overall efficiency of the entire organization and to prevent the private interests of any one element of the organization from harming the overall success. Secondly, the need to achieve this in an organizational environment that always creates conflicting goals.
Expanding the use of a systems approach in making management decisions will help improve the efficiency of the functioning of all kinds of economic and social objects.
