Examples of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Methods of cognition

A person’s cognitive relationship to the world is carried out in various forms - in the form of everyday knowledge, artistic, religious knowledge, and finally, in the form of scientific knowledge. The first three areas of knowledge are considered, in contrast to science, as non-scientific forms. Scientific knowledge grew out of everyday knowledge, but at present these two forms of knowledge are quite far apart.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical. These levels should not be confused with the aspects of cognition in general - sensory reflection and rational cognition. The fact is that in the first case we mean various types of cognitive activity of scientists, and in the second we are talking about the types of mental activity of an individual in the process of cognition in general, and both of these types are used both at the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.

The levels of scientific knowledge themselves differ in a number of parameters: 1) in the subject of research. Empirical research is focused on phenomena, theoretical research is focused on essence; 2) by means and instruments of cognition; 3) according to research methods. At the empirical level, this is observation, experiment, at the theoretical level - a systematic approach, idealization, etc.; 4) by the nature of the acquired knowledge. In one case these are empirical facts, classifications, empirical laws, in the second - laws, disclosure of essential connections, theories.

In the XVII-XVIII and partly in the XIX centuries. science was still at the empirical stage, limiting its tasks to the generalization and classification of empirical facts, and the formulation of empirical laws. Subsequently, the theoretical level is built on top of the empirical level, which is associated with a comprehensive study of reality in its essential connections and patterns. Moreover, both types of research are organically interconnected and presuppose each other in the holistic structure of scientific knowledge.

Methods applicable at the empirical level of scientific knowledge: observation and experiment.

Observation- this is the deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct interference in their course, subordinated to the tasks of scientific research. The basic requirements for scientific observation are the following: 1) unambiguous purpose and design; 2) consistency in observation methods; 3) objectivity; 4) the possibility of control either through repeated observation or through experiment.

Observation is used, as a rule, where intervention in the process under study is undesirable or impossible. Observation in modern science is associated with the widespread use of instruments, which, firstly, enhance the senses, and secondly, remove the touch of subjectivity from the assessment of observed phenomena. An important place in the process of observation (as well as experiment) is occupied by the measurement operation. Measurement- is the definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., an important component of the study is the interpretation of the data obtained.

Observation in the social sciences is particularly difficult, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participant (participant) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).

Experiment in contrast to observation, it is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of experiment in comparison with observation are that, firstly, it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times.

There are several types of experiments.

1) The simplest type of experiment is qualitative, establishing the presence or absence of phenomena proposed by the theory.

2) The second, more complex type is a measuring or quantitative experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of any property (or properties) of an object or process.

3) A special type of experiment in fundamental sciences is a thought experiment.

4) Finally: a specific type of experiment is a social experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimize management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Observation and experiment are the source scientific facts, which in science are understood as a special kind of sentences that capture empirical knowledge. Facts are the foundation of the building of science; they form the empirical basis of science, the basis for putting forward hypotheses and creating theories.

Let us designate some processing and systematization methods empirical knowledge. This is primarily analysis and synthesis. Analysis- the process of mental, and often real, division of an object or phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure to analysis is synthesis. Synthesis- this is the combination of the sides of an object identified during the analysis into a single whole.

A significant role in generalizing the results of observations and experiments belongs to induction (from the Latin inductio - guidance), a special type of generalization of experimental data. During induction, the researcher’s thought moves from the particular (particular factors) to the general. There are popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction, the movement of thought from the general to the specific. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge.

The induction process is associated with an operation such as comparison- establishing similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis prepare the ground for the development of classifications - combining various concepts and corresponding phenomena into certain groups, types in order to establish connections between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications - the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of diagrams and tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.

Empirical knowledge is the establishment of scientific facts and their subjective processing. This is the initial moment of the cognition process, in which sensations and feelings play the most important role. Thanks to the senses, a human being can be objectively connected with the world around him. They provide direct primary knowledge about things, phenomena and objects, their functions and properties.

Epistemology of sensations

This section of science considers the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge as a superstructure over the sensory. The latter include perception, sensation and representation. Empirical knowledge is based on sensations. This is a reflection of the properties of individual objects, things during their impact on the senses. This is elementary knowledge that does not have the structure of a cognitive phenomenon. The information capacity of the human senses is based on vision, touch, hearing, smell and taste. Sense organs as means of cognition are formed as a result of practical direct interaction between nature and man. It is through this practice that empirical knowledge is possible. The ideas and images that are created as a result of the acquisition of one or another sensation cannot be separated from the cognitive social actions and preferences of people.

Epistemology of perception

The empirical level of cognition is also built on perception, which is a sensory-structured, concrete image. It arises on the basis of a complex of previously received sensations: tactile, visual, and so on. Empirical knowledge starts from perception, which is thinking contemplation. As a result of the perception and sensation of the forms of external nature, an idea of it is created as an image of a cognitive type. Representation is an intermediate link between thinking and perception.

Comprehension

Empirical knowledge appears at the intersection of sensory perception and consciousness. Sensations leave a deep imprint on the mind. Processes and events, felt subconsciously, orient a person in the flow of life events, but he does not always specifically record them. It is impossible to comprehend all this and penetrate into the essence of things, to find out the causes of phenomena with the help of the senses alone. This can be achieved through mental (rational) cognition, combined with a process such as empirical cognition.

Experienced level

Experience is a higher level compared to the sensory. Empirical and theoretical knowledge (without which it will be impossible to apply the experience gained) make it possible to describe experience. They involve the creation of a source of knowledge in the form of scientific, rigorous documents. These can be schemes, acts, protocols, and so on. Empirical knowledge can be both direct and indirect (through the use of all kinds of instruments and devices).

Historical process

Modern empirical scientific knowledge has its source from observation of things, objects and natural phenomena. Our ancestors observed animals, plants, the sky, other people, and the work of the human body. It was the knowledge acquired in this way that formed the basis of astronomy, biology, medicine, physics and other sciences. In the process of development of civilization, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge were improved, and the possibilities of perception and observation with the help of tools and devices increased. Purposeful observation differs from contemplation by the selectivity of the process. Preliminary hypotheses and ideas target the researcher at specific research objects, which also determines the set of technical means that are necessary to obtain a reliable result.

Methodology

Methods of empirical knowledge are based on living contemplation, sensory perception and rationality. Collection and synthesis of facts is the main task of these processes. Methods of empirical knowledge include observation, measurement, analysis, induction, experiment, comparison, observation.
1. Observation is a passive, purposeful study of an object, which relies on the senses. During this process, the researcher receives general information about the object of knowledge and its properties.

2. An experiment is a purposeful active intervention in the current process being studied. It includes a change in the object and the conditions of its functioning, which are determined by the goals of the experiment. The features of the experiment are: an active attitude towards the subject of research, the possibility of its transformation, control over its behavior, verification of the result, reproducibility of the experiment in relation to the object and conditions being studied, the ability to discover additional properties of phenomena.

3. Comparison is an operation of cognition that reveals the differences or identity of different objects. This process makes sense in one class of homogeneous things and phenomena.

4. Description - a procedure consisting of recording the result of an experiment (experiment or observation) using accepted notation systems.

5. Measurement is a set of active actions that are performed using measuring and computing tools to find the numerical and quantitative values of the quantities being studied.

It must be emphasized that empirical and theoretical knowledge are always realized together, that is, research methods are supported by conceptual theories, hypotheses and ideas.

Technical equipment

Empirical knowledge in science actively uses technical retrofitting in the process of studying phenomena and things. These could be:

Measuring devices and instruments: scales, rulers, speedometers, radiometers, ammeters and voltmeters, wattmeters and so on, helping the researcher to find out the parameters and characteristics of objects;

Instruments that can help in observing things and objects that are virtually invisible to the naked eye (telescopes, microscopes, etc.);

Devices that allow you to analyze the functions and structure of the processes and phenomena under study: oscilloscopes, electrocardiographs, chromatographs, chronometers, etc.

The importance of the experiment

Empirical knowledge and its results today directly depend on experimental data. If they are not obtained or are not possible at this stage, then the theory is considered “bare” - impractical and unconfirmed. Conducting an experiment correctly is a responsible task of building a theory. Only through this process can hypotheses be tested and hypothesized connections established. An experiment differs qualitatively from observation in three conditions:

1. During an experiment, phenomena occur under conditions previously created by the researcher. During observation, we only register a phenomenon in its natural environment.

2. The researcher freely interferes with events and phenomena within the framework of the rules of the experiment. The observer does not have the right and cannot regulate the object of research and its conditions.

3. During the experiment, the researcher has the right to exclude or include various parameters. The observer only records possible new parameters in natural conditions.

Types of experiments

The empirical level of knowledge is based on different types of experiments:

Physical - study of the diversity of natural phenomena;

Psychological - study of the life activity of the subject of research and accompanying circumstances;

Mental - carried out exclusively in the imagination;

Critical - data must be checked according to various criteria;

Computer mathematical modeling.

There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first stage of the cognitive process is to determine what we do not know. It is important to clearly and strictly define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. The problem(from the Greek problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that requires resolution.

The second step is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that requires testing.

If a hypothesis is proven by a large number of facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such as, for example, evolutionary theory, relativity theory, quantum theory, etc.

When choosing the best theory, the degree of its testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.

Scientific facts

It is necessary to distinguish between objective and scientific facts. Objective fact- this is a really existing object, process or event that took place. For example, the death of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. Scientific fact is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of a generally accepted system of knowledge.

Assessments are opposed to facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. Scientific facts usually record the objective world as it is, while assessments reflect a person’s subjective position, his interests, and the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.

Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of transition from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or reject it as incorrect.

Method(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is called a rule, technique, way of cognition. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allow one to study an object. F. Bacon called the method “a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark.”

Methodology is a broader concept and can be defined as:

a set of methods used in any science;
general doctrine of method.

Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical ways of knowing) and theoretical (logical procedures).

Empirical methods of cognition

basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrument data. These methods include:

observation— purposeful perception of phenomena without interfering with them;
experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured quantity to
standard (for example, meter);
comparison— identification of similarities or differences between objects or their characteristics.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even simple observation requires preliminary theoretical foundations - choosing an object for observation, formulating a hypothesis, etc.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods rely on rational cognition (concept, judgment, inference) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

analysis- the process of mental or real division of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
synthesis - combining the aspects of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
— combining various objects into groups based on common characteristics (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
abstraction - abstraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object for the purpose of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
formalization - display of knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects;
modeling— creation and study of a proxy (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);
idealization— creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it (geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
deduction - movement from the general to the specific;
induction- movement from the particular (facts) to a general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, therefore it is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical one. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All of the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Method approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, the hermeneutic method, etc. The extremely general methods-approaches are the philosophical methods:

metaphysical— viewing an object askew, statically, out of connection with other objects;
dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interrelation, internal contradiction and unity.

Absolutization of one method as the only correct one is called dogmatics(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical accumulation of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.

FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC COGNITION. EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE.

Human cognitive activity is most clearly manifested in scientific knowledge, because It is science, in relation to other forms of social consciousness, that is most aimed at the cognitive development of reality. This is expressed in the features of scientific knowledge.

A characteristic feature of scientific knowledge is its rationality- appeal to the arguments of reason and reason. Scientific knowledge constructs the world in concepts. Scientific thinking, first of all, is a conceptual activity, while in art, for example, an artistic image is a form of exploration of the world.

Another feature is orientation towards identifying objective laws of functioning and development of the objects under study. It follows from this that science strives for substantive and objective knowledge of reality. But since it is known that any knowledge (including scientific) is a fusion of objective and subjective, it is necessary to note the specificity of the objectivity of scientific knowledge. It consists in the maximum possible elimination (removal, expulsion) of the subjective from knowledge.

Science aims to discover and develop future methods and forms of practical exploration of the world, not only today’s. In this way it differs, for example, from ordinary spontaneous-empirical knowledge. Decades may pass between a scientific discovery and its application in practice, in any form, but, ultimately, theoretical achievements create the foundation for future applied engineering and technical developments to satisfy practical interests.

Scientific knowledge relies on specialized research tools, which influence the object being studied and allow one to identify its possible states under conditions controlled by the subject. Specialized scientific equipment allows science to experimentally study new types of objects.

The most important features of scientific knowledge are its evidence, validity and consistency.

The specificity of the systematic nature of science – in its two-level organization: empirical and theoretical levels and the order of their interaction. This is the uniqueness of scientific cognition and knowledge, since no other form of cognition has a two-level organization.

Among the characteristic features of science is its special methodology. Along with knowledge about objects, science forms knowledge about methods of scientific activity. This leads to the formation of methodology as a special branch of scientific research designed to guide scientific research.

Classical science, which emerged in the 16th – 17th centuries, combined theory and experiment, distinguishing two levels in science: empirical and theoretical. They correspond to two interrelated and at the same time specific types of scientific and cognitive activity: empirical and theoretical research.

As was said, scientific knowledge is organized at two levels: empirical and theoretical.

TO empirical level These include techniques and methods, as well as forms of scientific knowledge that are directly related to scientific practice, to those types of substantive activities that ensure the accumulation, fixation, grouping and generalization of source material for the construction of indirect theoretical knowledge. This includes scientific observation, various forms of scientific experiment, scientific facts and ways of grouping them: systematization, analysis and generalization.

TO theoretical level include all those types and methods of scientific knowledge and methods of organizing knowledge that are characterized by one or another degree of mediation and ensure the creation, construction and development of scientific theory as logically organized knowledge about objective laws and other essential connections and relationships in the objective world. This includes theory and its elements and components such as scientific abstractions, idealizations, models, scientific laws, scientific ideas and hypotheses, methods of operating with scientific abstractions (deduction, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, logical and mathematical means, etc. )

It must be emphasized that although the difference between the empirical and theoretical levels is due to objective qualitative differences in the content and methods of scientific activity, as well as the nature of knowledge itself, however, this difference is at the same time relative. No form of empirical activity is possible without its theoretical understanding and, conversely, any theory, no matter how abstract it may be, ultimately relies on scientific practice, on empirical data.

The main forms of empirical knowledge include observation and experiment. Observation there is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena of the external world. Scientific observation is characterized by purposefulness, planning and organization.

Experiment differs from observation in its active nature, interference in the natural course of events. An experiment is a type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, consisting of influencing a scientific object (process) through special instruments. Thanks to this it is possible to:

– isolate the object under study from the influence of side, unimportant phenomena;

– repeatedly reproduce the process under strictly fixed conditions;

– systematically study and combine various conditions in order to obtain the desired result.

An experiment is always a means to solve a certain cognitive task or problem. There are a wide variety of types of experiments: physical, biological, direct, model, search, verification experiments, etc.

The nature of the forms of the empirical level determines the research methods. Thus, measurement as one of the types of quantitative research methods has the goal of most fully reflecting objective quantitative relationships expressed in number and magnitude in scientific knowledge.

The systematization of scientific facts is of great importance. Scientific fact - this is not just any event, but an event that entered the sphere of scientific knowledge and was recorded through observation or experiment. Systematization of facts means the process of grouping them based on essential properties. One of the most important methods of generalizing and systematizing facts is induction.

Induction defined as a method of achieving probabilistic knowledge. Induction can be intuitive - a simple guess, the discovery of a commonality during observation. Induction can act as a procedure for establishing the general by listing individual cases. If the number of such cases is limited, then it is called complete.

Reasoning by analogy also refers to inductive inferences, since they are characterized by probability. Typically, analogy is understood as that particular case of similarity between phenomena, which consists in the similarity or identity of relations between elements of different systems. To increase the degree of plausibility of conclusions by analogy, it is necessary to increase the diversity and achieve uniformity of the properties being compared, and to maximize the number of compared characteristics. Thus, through the establishment of similarities between phenomena, a transition is essentially made from induction to another method - deduction.

Deduction differs from induction in that it is associated with propositions arising from the laws and rules of logic, but the truth of the premises is problematic, while induction is based on true premises,

But the transition to proposals and conclusions remains a problem. Therefore, in scientific knowledge, these methods complement each other to substantiate theses.

The path of transition from empirical to theoretical knowledge is very difficult. It has the character of a dialectical leap in which various and contradictory aspects intertwine, complementing each other: abstract thinking and sensibility, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, etc. The key point in this transition is the hypothesis, its formulation, formulation and development, its justification and proof.

The term " hypothesis "is used in two senses: 1) in a narrow sense - designating some assumption about a natural order or other essential connections and relationships; 2) in a broad sense - as a system of propositions, some of which are initial premises of a probabilistic nature, while others represent a deductive development of these premises. As a result of comprehensive testing and confirmation of all the various consequences, a hypothesis turns into a theory.

Theory This is a system of knowledge for which the true assessment is completely definite and positive. Theory is a system of objectively true knowledge. A theory differs from a hypothesis in its reliability, and from other types of reliable knowledge (facts, statistical data, etc.) it differs in its strict logical organization and its content, which consists in reflecting the essence of phenomena. Theory is knowledge of the essence. An object at the level of theory appears in its internal connection and integrity as a system, the structure and behavior of which obeys certain laws. Thanks to this, the theory explains the variety of existing facts and can predict new events, which speaks of its most important functions: explanatory and predictive (foresight function). A theory is made up of concepts and statements. Concepts capture the qualities and relationships of objects from the subject area. Statements reflect the natural order, behavior and structure of the subject area. The peculiarity of the theory is that concepts and statements are interconnected into a logically coherent, consistent system. The set of logical relations between the terms and propositions of a theory forms its logical structure, which is generally deductive. Theories can be classified according to various criteria and grounds: by the degree of connection with reality, by the area of creation, application, etc.

Scientific thinking operates with many methods. We can distinguish such, for example, as analysis and synthesis, abstraction and idealization, modeling. Analysis – this is a method of thinking associated with the decomposition of the object under study into its component parts, development trends for the purpose of their relatively independent study. Synthesis– the opposite operation, which consists in combining previously identified parts into a whole in order to obtain knowledge as a whole about the previously identified parts and trends. Abstraction is the process of mental isolation, isolating individual characteristics, properties and relationships of interest in the process of research in order to understand them more deeply.

In the process of idealization there is an extreme distraction from all the real properties of the object. A so-called ideal object is formed, which can be operated upon in the knowledge of real objects. For example, concepts such as “point”, “straight line”, “absolute black body” and others. Thus, the concept of a material point does not actually correspond to any object. But a mechanic, operating with this ideal object, is able to theoretically explain and predict the behavior of real material objects.

Literature.

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy. – M., 2000. Section. II, ch. XIII.

2. Philosophy / Ed. V.V. Mironova. – M., 2005. Section. V, ch. 2.

Test questions for self-test.

1. What is the main task of epistemology?

2. What forms of agnosticism can be distinguished?

3. What is the difference between sensationalism and rationalism?

4. What is “empiricism”?

5. What is the role of sensitivity and thinking in individual cognitive activity?

6. What is intuitive knowledge?

7. Highlight the main ideas of K. Marx’s activity concept of cognition.

8. How does the connection between subject and object occur in the process of cognition?

9. What determines the content of knowledge?

10. What is “truth”? What main approaches in epistemology to the definition of this concept will you name?

11. What is the criterion of truth?

12. Explain what is the objective nature of truth?

13. Why is truth relative?

14. Is absolute truth possible?

15. What is the peculiarity of scientific knowledge and scientific knowledge?

16. What forms and methods of the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge can be distinguished?

The empirical level of knowledge in science to a certain extent corresponds to the sensory stage of research, while the theoretical level corresponds to the rational or logical level. Of course, there is no absolute correspondence between them. It has been established that the empirical level of knowledge includes not only sensory, but also logical research. In this case, information received by a sensory method is subjected to primary processing by conceptual (rational) means.

Empirical knowledge, therefore, is not only a reflection of reality, formed experimentally. They represent a specific unity of mental and sensory expression of reality. In this case, sensory reflection comes first, and thinking plays a subordinate, auxiliary role to observation.

Empirical data provide science with facts. Their establishment is an integral part of any research. Thus, the empirical level of knowledge contributes to the establishment and accumulation

A fact is a reliably established event, a non-fictional incident. This recorded empirical knowledge is synonymous with such concepts as “results” and “events”.

It should be noted that facts act not only as an information source and “sensory” reasoning. They are also a criterion of truth and reliability.

The empirical level of knowledge allows one to establish facts using various methods. These methods, in particular, include observation, experiment, comparison, measurement.

Observation is the purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena and objects. The purpose of this perception is to determine the relationships and properties of the phenomena or objects being studied. Observation can be carried out both directly and indirectly (using instruments - a microscope, a camera, and others). It should be noted that for modern science such research becomes more complicated and more indirect over time.

Comparison is a cognitive procedure. It is the basis according to which the difference or similarity of objects is realized. Comparison allows us to identify quantitative and qualitative properties and characteristics of objects.

It should be said that the comparison method is appropriate when determining the characteristics of homogeneous phenomena or objects that form classes. Just like observation, this can be carried out indirectly or directly. In the first case, comparison is made by correlating two objects with a third, which is a standard.

Measurement is the establishment of a numerical indicator of a certain value using a specific unit (watts, centimeters, kilograms, etc.). This method has been used since the emergence of new European science. Due to its wide application, measurement has become an organic element

All of the above methods can be used either independently or in combination. Together, observation, measurement and comparison are part of a more complex empirical method of cognition - experiment.

This research technique involves placing an object in clearly taken into account conditions or reproducing it in an artificial way to identify certain characteristics. An experiment is a way of carrying out an active activity. Activity in this case presupposes the ability of the subject to intervene during the process or phenomenon being studied.