Problematic question. Miscalculations
Changes in world politics after the end of the Cold War, as well as the democratization that began in the country, put Russia in the position of a country that must redefine its place in world politics, identify those priorities of its foreign policy activities that will determine its role and influence on the world stage. The development of such a strategy and tactics is determined not only by long-term plans for the renewal of the country; it is fully influenced by political traditions, mass and elite stereotypes, and modern foreign policy relations.
Currently, we can talk about three main directions (paths, options) for Russia to develop its line of behavior in the international arena.
The first option for choosing a foreign policy strategy is associated with attempts to maintain the status of a great power and continue the previous expansionist policy aimed at expanding the zone of political influence and control over other states. Despite the impracticability of this kind of alternative, it can be stated that the country has certain resources for its implementation. First of all, such a policy is possible on the basis of the threat of the state using its military, primarily nuclear, potential, the embodiment of certain ambitions of part of the political leadership, as well as unresolved mass stereotypes (anti-Western, chauvinistic, etc.).
The second path involves Russia acquiring the status of a regional power. In one case, its influence may be based primarily on factors of forceful pressure on neighboring states and, in fact, repeat the logic of the behavior of a “superpower” in the local political space. In another option, the conquest of political influence by a country can be based on its establishing equal and mutually beneficial relations with its neighbors, renouncing military and forceful threats against them and consciously avoiding involvement in world conflicts and contradictions.
The third way assumes that Russia can take a purely pragmatic foreign policy position, based on fundamental equidistance from certain blocs of forces and pragmatic rapprochement or distance from specific coalitions and states. Thus, its national interests will be formed on a non-ideological basis, changing depending on the specific emerging situation. With this approach to foreign policy tasks, the country will be able to focus on solving economic and other internal problems.
In the real political activity of the state, elements of each of the three possible strategies are intertwined, and each of them presupposes the inevitable solution of problems associated with the development of principled relations with at least three groups of its foreign policy counterparties: its allies, the West and the countries of the “third world”.
When developing a foreign policy strategy, it is important to maintain the organic unity of the principles of forming the foreign and domestic policies of the state. That is, the state must provide for the existence of uniform standards regulating relations with all these groups of countries. Therefore, while fighting the authoritarian tendencies of the West, Russia itself should not allow this kind of action in relation to neighboring countries, condemning manifestations of nationalism and fascism in the sphere of international relations, fight them just as decisively within the country, demanding openness from its competitors, should equally publicly report their actions in the country and in the international arena.
Among the priority areas of Russian foreign policy are the following:
Creation of a new system of relations with former socialist countries;
Entry into the European and world community;
Development of new principles of interstate relations with the former republics of the USSR;
Development of a new military-political doctrine in a changed geopolitical space;
Intensifying relations with China and the countries of Southeast Asia;
Equal development of relations with the United States;
Opposition to the establishment of a “unipolar” world under the auspices of the United States;
Participation in peacekeeping actions to end armed conflicts under the auspices of the UN.
New political thinking. Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR E. A. Shevardnadze In July 1985, the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs was taken by E. Shevardnadze. Soon the main features of the new course were determined - the normalization of relations with the West, the end of the confrontation with the United States and its allies. This policy was called "New Thinking". These ideas were not new. They were previously put forward by prominent scientists, philosophers and political figures I. Kant, M. Gandhi, A. Einstein, B. Russell and others. Gorbachev's merit was that he was the first of the powerful politicians to put these principles into the basis of real foreign policy. Main directions of foreign policy Soviet-American summit meeting Moscow 1988 1. In 1987, an agreement on the elimination of intermediate- and shorter-range missiles was signed. 2. In 1989, Gorbachev declared that the “Brezhnev Doctrine” was dead. 3. In 1991, a treaty on the limitation of strategic offensive arms was signed. Main directions of foreign policy Reducing the size of the USSR Armed Forces and defense spending. 1989-90 Summer 1991 George Bush nominated Gorbachev "6 conditions", in which the West will continue to cooperate with the USSR - democracy, market, federation, policy changes in the Middle East, refusal to modernize Soviet nuclear missile forces. Main directions of foreign policy Revolution in Bucharest. Changes in Eastern Europe began in 1987. Under pressure from Gorbachev, the process of changing political leadership and democratization of society began here. Since 1989, the process of withdrawing Soviet troops from the region began. As a result of the “velvet revolutions,” totalitarian regimes fell in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Belarus, and Albania. In 1989, the regime of N. Ceausescu was overthrown in Romania. The Berlin Wall The Fall of the Berlin Camp The main directions of foreign policy
- In the spring of 1991, the Warsaw Pact was dissolved and this increased criticism of Gorbachev within the country.
In the first two years of Gorbachev's rule, USSR foreign policy was based on traditional ideological priorities. But in 1987-1988, serious adjustments were made to them. Gorbachev offered the world “new political thinking.” It seriously changed international relations for the better and significantly reduced tension in the world. However, some serious miscalculations of the Soviet leadership and the economic crisis in the USSR led to the fact that the West benefited most from the new political thinking, and the authority of the USSR in the world fell noticeably. This was one of the reasons for the collapse of the USSR.
Reasons for changes in the foreign policy of the USSR.
In the mid-80s, the foreign policy of the USSR reached a dead end in many respects.
1) There was a real danger of a new round of the Cold War, which would have further inflamed the situation in the world.
2) The Cold War could have completely ruined the Soviet economy, which was experiencing a severe crisis.
4) ideological “taboos” limited the foreign economic activity of the USSR itself, preventing the full development of the Soviet economy.
New political thinking.
The proposals put forward by Gorbachev within the framework of new political thinking were revolutionary in nature and fundamentally contradicted the traditional foundations of the USSR's foreign policy.
Basic principles of “new thinking”:
Refusal from ideological confrontation, from dividing the world into two warring political systems and recognition of the world as one, indivisible and interdependent;
The desire to solve international problems not from a position of strength, but on the basis of a balance of interests of the parties. This would eliminate the arms race and mutual hostility and create an atmosphere of trust and cooperation;
Recognition of the priority of universal human values over class, national, ideological, religious, etc. Thus, the USSR abandoned the principle of a socialist international, recognizing the highest interests of all humanity.
In accordance with the new political thinking, three main directions of USSR foreign policy were identified:
Normalization of relations with the West and disarmament;
Resolution of international conflicts;
Broad economic and political cooperation with various countries without ideological restrictions, without particularly singling out socialist countries.
Results of the “new thinking” policy.
Tensions in the world have eased significantly. There was even talk of ending the Cold War. The image of the enemy, which had been formed for decades on both sides of the Iron Curtain, was virtually destroyed.
For the first time in history, there was not just a limitation of nuclear weapons - the elimination of entire classes of nuclear weapons began. Europe was also freed from conventional weapons.
The process of closer integration of the USSR and the socialist countries of Europe into the world economy and into international political structures began.
Relations between the USSR and the West
An important consequence of the “new political thinking” were the annual meetings of M. S. Gorbachev with US Presidents R. Reagan and then D. Bush. The results of these meetings were important decisions and agreements that significantly reduced tension in the world.
In 1987, the USSR and the USA concluded an agreement on the destruction of intermediate- and shorter-range missiles. For the first time, the two superpowers agreed not on a reduction in these weapons, but on their complete elimination.
In 1990, an agreement was signed on the reduction of conventional weapons in Europe. As a gesture of goodwill, the USSR unilaterally reduced its defense spending and reduced the size of its armed forces by 500 thousand people.
In 1991, the Strategic Arms Limitation Agreement (START-1) was signed. It made it possible to begin reducing nuclear weapons in the world.
In parallel with the disarmament policy, new economic relations began to form with the United States and other Western countries. Ideological principles had less and less influence on the foreign policy of the USSR and on the nature of its relations with Western countries. But a very unfavorable reason soon appeared for further rapprochement with the West. The deteriorating economic situation of the Soviet Union made it increasingly dependent on the West, from which the USSR leadership expected to receive economic assistance and political support. This forced Gorbachev and his circle to make increasingly serious and often unilateral concessions to the West. Ultimately, this led to a decline in the authority of the USSR.
USSR and regional conflicts
In 1989, the USSR withdrew its troops from Afghanistan. At the Second Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, the Afghan war was recognized as a gross political mistake.
That same year, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia began. At the same time, the USSR facilitated the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops from Kampuchea (Cambodia). All this led to improved relations with China. Border trade was restored between the two great powers, and a series of important agreements on political, economic and cultural cooperation were signed.
The USSR refused direct intervention in conflicts in Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia, and Nicaragua. Result: the civil war ended in Angola, Cambodia and Nicaragua, and representatives of the warring parties formed coalition governments.
The Soviet Union significantly reduced gratuitous assistance to allied regimes and ideological supporters. Stopped supporting the regimes in Libya and Iraq. And during the Gulf crisis in 1990, for the first time he supported the actions of the West.
In 1991, an international agreement was concluded that helped improve Israel's relations with neighboring Arab countries. The USSR played a major role in this event.
All these steps significantly reduced tension in the world and contributed to the improvement of the international political climate. However, the Soviet Union was not destined to reap the fruits of its efforts.
Relations with socialist countries. The collapse of the socialist camp. Political defeat of the USSR.
In 1989, the USSR began withdrawing its troops from the socialist countries of Eastern and Central Europe.
At the same time, anti-socialist sentiments intensified in these countries.
In 1989-1990, “velvet” revolutions took place here, as a result of which power transferred peacefully from the communist parties to national democratic forces. Only in Romania did bloody clashes occur during the change of power.
Yugoslavia split into several states. Croatia and Slovenia, which were part of Yugoslavia, declared themselves independent republics. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a war broke out over territory and independence between the Serb, Croat and Muslim communities. Only Serbia and Montenegro remained within Yugoslavia.
In 1990, the two Germanys united: the GDR became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, the united Germany retained its membership in NATO. The USSR did not express any special objections to this.
Almost all the new governments of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe have also taken a course towards moving away from the USSR and rapprochement with the West. They expressed full readiness to join NATO and the Common Market.
In the spring of 1991, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the military bloc of socialist countries, the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO), ceased to exist. The socialist camp finally collapsed.
The leadership of the USSR took a position of non-interference in processes that were radically changing the political map of Europe. The reason was not only new political thinking. By the end of the 80s, the USSR economy was experiencing a catastrophic crisis. The country was sliding into an economic abyss and was too weak to carry out strong and sufficiently independent foreign policy activities. As a result, the Soviet Union found itself highly dependent on Western countries.
Left without old allies and without acquiring new ones, finding itself in a difficult economic situation, the USSR quickly lost the initiative in international affairs. Soon, NATO countries increasingly began to ignore the opinion of the USSR on the most important international problems.
Western countries did not provide the USSR with serious financial assistance. They were increasingly inclined to support individual union republics, encouraging their separatism. This also became one of the reasons for the collapse of the USSR.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, there was only one superpower left in the world - the United States. The second superpower, the USSR, having lost old friends, did not find in the West the allied relations that it had counted on. It fell apart under the influence of external and internal factors. In December 1991, US President George H. W. Bush announced the end of the Cold War and congratulated the Americans on their victory.
Goals:
1. To acquaint students with the main foreign policy events in 1985-1991.
2. Bring students to understand the results of the “new thinking” policy.
3. Continue to develop the skills to independently work with documents, textbook text, analyze, draw conclusions, and present “cross-cutting” issues of the topic.
Equipment:
Textbook on the history of Russia XX - early XXI centuries for grade 9, authors: A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina, M.Yu. Brandt.
Experimental textbook by E. Saplina, V. Sorokin, I. Ukolova “Difficult paths to democracy”,
Political map of the world, atlases on the history of Russia,
Presentation for the lesson (
Handouts for students.
Board design:
Quote on the board: “The essence of perestroika is that it combines socialism and democracy, theoretically and practically restores the Leninist concept of socialist construction...
Therefore, more socialism, more democracy. We will move towards better socialism..."
M.S.Gorbachev
Portrait of M.S. Gorbachev.
Chronicle of events:
1990 - M.S. Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by unanimous decision of the Nobel Committee.
This material can be shown through an overhead projector.
During the classes
1. Organizational moment.
2. Checking homework in order to update students’ basic knowledge on the topic “Publicity Policy: Achievements and Costs.” Slide number 1.
The teacher reports: At the XXVII Congress of the CPSU in February 1986, M.S. Gorbachev uttered three key words in his innovative report - “perestroika”, “acceleration”, “glasnost”.
Frontal survey:
Define perestroika.
-What caused it?
-What does the concept of “acceleration” mean?
-What is glasnost?
Match events and dates.
XIX Party Conference, 1st Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, collapse of the USSR, the beginning of economic reforms, development of the “500” days program, introduction of the post of President of the USSR.
1989,1991,1988,1990,1990,1987.
XIX Party Conference - 1988,
Elections of the 1st Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR - 1989,
Collapse of the USSR - 1991,
Beginning of economic reforms – 1987,
Development of the “500 days” program – 1990.
Introduction of the post of President of the USSR - 1990.
At the choice of the teacher, you can organize a self-questioning of students on the topic of homework, which makes it possible for more students to take part in the discussion of the problem and the presentations of their comrades.
3. Learning new material. Slide number 4:
Topic study plan:
1. New political thinking.
2. East-West. The beginning of disarmament.
3. Unblocking regional conflicts.
4. The collapse of the socialist system.
5. Results of the “new thinking” policy.
The teacher informs the topic of the lesson, the plan for studying the topic, reminds of the need to use special terminology when considering the problem, explains the educational task for students: as they work in the lesson, fill out the table “Results of Foreign Policy”.
Positive changes |
miscalculations |
Working with the dictionary handout: “cold war”, bipolar world, “third world”, NATO, Warsaw Warsaw, CMEA, “socialist camp”, “velvet” revolutions, dialectics of new thinking, proletarian internationalism.
Presentation slides are being shown at the same time. .
The study of new material begins with a list of signs of the Cold War.
Students call the arms race, bipolarity
(split) of the world, the creation of military-political blocs, the presence of local conflicts.
The teacher reports: The head of the foreign policy department was E.A. Shevardnadze.
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR
Eduard Ambrosevich Shevardnadze
Born in 1928 in the high mountain village of Mamati, Chokhataur district. Since 1957 to 1961 - First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Komsomol of Georgia. From 1965 to 1972 - Minister of Internal Affairs of Georgia. In 1972 becomes the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia. He gained fame as an extraordinary leader. In 1985, E.A. Shevardnadze is appointed to the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, replacing Andrei Andreevich Gromyko, who held out on this positions 28 years. Member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee in 1985-90.
(if desired, you can instruct the student in advance to prepare a short historical portrait of E.A. Shevardnadze ).
The teacher continues: At the beginning of perestroika, a new philosophical and political concept appeared, called “new political thinking.”
The essence of this concept is revealed using
“New political thinking is a view of the world through a person and his interests. I passionately wanted us to talk to my foreign colleagues as people who have common concerns.”
E.A.Shevardnadze
Main directions of foreign policy:
- Normalization of East-West relations
- Unblocking regional conflicts
- Establishing close economic and mutually beneficial contacts between countries
"New political thinking"
- Refusal of the conclusion about the split of the world
- Recognition of the world as whole and indivisible
- Refusal of forceful methods
- Rejection of the principles of proletarian internationalism
Revealing the 2nd question of the topic, the teacher suggests characterize relations between the USSR and the West using the textbook “Chronicle of Events” pp. 137-138
USSR and USA: the beginning of disarmament
- Annual summits
- Signing of the Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles
- START I Agreement
Why were M.S. Gorbachev’s peace initiatives met differently by Americans and Soviet people?
Considering the third question of the topic, students remember what local conflicts took place?
Resolving regional conflicts
1989 – completion of the withdrawal of the Soviet military contingent from Afghanistan
1989 Visit M.S. Gorbachev to China
1991 – Madrid Agreement on the Arab-Israeli Conflict
Students get to know each other with the material “Afghan War” pp. 141-142 of the manual (Appendix No. 3).
Using the textbook (p. 349 ) students call events characterizing the unblocking of regional conflicts and draw a conclusion.
Which countries were part of the socialist camp? Students show them on the map.
Students analyze the documents in the manual pp. 144-145 “Farewell, Eastern Europe!”
Collapse of the socialist system
1989-1990 - withdrawal of Soviet troops from Eastern Europe
1990 - consent to the unification of Germany
1991 - dissolution of the CMEA and the Department of Internal Affairs
Students discuss A. Beketov’s poem “Already the towers under the rubies...” p. 146 in the manual (Appendix No. 5).
How do you understand the poet’s lines “and slavery melts slowly, like ice in the Kolyma backwater”?
Students draw conclusions on the topic using the notes they took during the lesson. You can use the entries in the “Foreign Policy Results” table.
Students' conclusion:
The current international situation forced the Russian leadership to abandon old methods of interaction and develop a new concept.
The teacher introduces various opinions of eyewitnesses of perestroika in foreign policy.
Critics: undermined the foundations of the country's defense capability
Reformists:
National security is ensured not by piles of weapons, but by radical reforms.
The teacher is interested in the students' opinions.
4. Reflection.
- The teacher conducts checking your work with the dictionary. Oral survey.
Show with examples how the foreign policy of the USSR during the period of perestroika reflected the peculiarities of domestic policy?
§52 ,
work on a contour map:
Example: Indicate with a certain sign the states that signed the Final Act of the CSCE.
Soviet foreign policy during the period under review was quite active. Despite the ongoing arms race and increased international tension in the 70s, the Soviet Union came up with a number of peacekeeping initiatives. In 1970, an agreement was signed between the USSR and Germany, in which both sides renounced the use of force and confirmed the post-war borders. In 1972, our country and the United States of America signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT-1), and in 1978 they entered into the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Agreements were signed on cooperation between the Soviet Union and Great Britain and Japan in the field of construction of industrial enterprises on the territory of the USSR.
The culmination of the “détente” was the pan-European Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) with the participation of the United States and Canada. It began its work in 1973 in the city of Helsinki (Finland). Then it worked for two years in Geneva and ended again in Helsinki, where the Final Act was signed, aimed at regulating relations and ensuring peace in Europe. It was planned to hold meetings of representatives of participating states to verify the implementation of its provisions. The Soviet leadership, led by L.I. Brezhnev, regarded the Helsinki process as its own victory in the matter of détente. The results of the meeting were of interest to the USSR only from the point of view of recognizing the borders in Europe that emerged after the Second World War and its special position in it. Western countries believed that the main point was the violation of human rights in the USSR and Eastern European countries. The process of “détente” soon gave way to a new round of the arms race. In the USSR, defense allocations were constantly increasing, and interference in the affairs of other states continued. Soviet troops were in Eastern European countries, in Vietnam, Syria, Angola, Mozambique, and Ethiopia.
But the main miscalculation in the foreign policy of the USSR was the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan in December 1, 1979. In 1978 As a result of a military coup, the People's Democratic Party, supported by the party and state leaders of the USSR, came to power in Afghanistan. The Soviet leadership, providing military-political assistance to Afghanistan, sought to include this underdeveloped country in the socialist camp. In 1979 Soviet troops were sent to Afghanistan. The world community sharply negatively assessed the actions of the USSR in Afghanistan. The authority of the Soviet country in the international arena decreased. Over one and a half million Soviet soldiers participated in the Afghan war for ten years. The Afghan war was a severe trauma for the Soviet people. It claimed the lives of 17 thousand young “internationalist warriors” who did not fully understand what they were fighting for.
The USSR provided material and military assistance to many developing countries, including Angola, Mozambique, Nicaragua, etc. However, this assistance had a negative impact on the Soviet economy, worsened the socio-political climate in our country, and reduced its authority in the international arena.
In the last years of L.I. Brezhnev's stay in power, he was ill a lot and, essentially, could not fully cope with the responsibilities of the head of state. By the end of his life, he probably received everything he dreamed of: he was the first person in the party and state, was a Marshal of the Soviet Union, four times Hero of the Soviet Union and Hero of Socialist Labor.
According to the recollections of those closest to him, Brezhnev, unlike Stalin and Khrushchev, did not have bright personal characteristics. He was a man of the apparatus and, in essence, a servant of the apparatus. If we keep in mind human qualities, then Brezhnev was a good person, sociable, stable in his affections, and a hospitable host. This was the case until the first half of the 70s, and then he began to collapse as a person and as a politician. In November 1982, L.I. Brezhnev died.
Brezhnev's successor was Yu.V. Andropov. Being a sensible politician, he, through strengthening control and service discipline, tried to increase the efficiency of the bureaucratic system without affecting its structure. Hope for change for the better arose in the mass consciousness. After Andropov’s death in February 1984, senior government positions were taken by the elderly and sick K.U. Chernenko, whose rule was in many ways reminiscent of Brezhnev's. The period of Chernenko's leadership turned out to be short - until March 10, 1985.
Questions for self-control:
1. Describe the internal political and socio-economic development of the country in 1965-1985.
2. Name the reasons for the emergence of the dissident movement in the USSR.
3. Analyze the main achievements and difficulties of the policy of détente.
Literature:
1. Georgieva N.G. Russian culture: history and modernity: Textbook / N.G. Georgieva. – M., 1998.
2. Zuev M.N. History of Russia: Textbook for universities / M.N. Zuev. – M., 2005.
3. History of Russia: IX-XXI centuries. From Rurik to Putin: Textbook / Rep. ed. Ya.A.Perekhov. –M., Rostov-on-Don, 2005.
4. History of Russia: In 2 volumes / A.N. Sakharov, L.E. Morozova, M.A. Rakhmatullin. – M., 2003.
5. Orlov A.S. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. Textbook / A.S.Orlov, V.A.Georgiev, N.G.Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhina. – M., 2003.
6. Semennikova L.I. Russia in the world community of civilizations / L.I. Semennikova. – Bryansk, 1995.
7. Strukov A.V. Domestic history from ancient times to the present: Textbook / A.V. Strukov. – Voronezh, 2005.
8. Shapovalov V.M. Origins and meaning of Russian civilization: Textbook / V.M. Shapovalov. – M. 2003.
End of work -
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Course of lectures on the discipline Domestic history Lecture No. 1 Topic: Education and development of the Old Russian state. Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries
Voronezh Institute of High Technologies.. Faculty of Correspondence Studies.. A V Strukov N V Bozhko..
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Counter-reform policy of Alexander III
When considering the government course of Alexander III (1881-1894), it should be borne in mind that it went down in history as a period of “counter-reforms”. Alexander III's inner circle consisted of the most
Features of the social movement in the post-reform period. Populism
Second half of the 19th century. in the spiritual sphere is characterized by contradictory trends. On the one hand, in the second half of the 50s of the XIX century. (period of preparation for peasant reform) in public
Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century
In the foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Three main directions can be distinguished: 1) Russian European policy: the struggle to revise the results of the Crimean War, strengthening the position of Russia
Russian culture of the 19th century
The main distinguishing feature of the development of Russian culture in the 19th century was that it developed rapidly, managed to reach the world level, and in certain areas even surpassed
Socio-economic and political situation
A characteristic feature of the beginning of the 20th century. was the process of establishing monopoly capitalism. This was facilitated by the development of the productive forces of society. Advances in natural science
Revolution of 1905-1907: prerequisites, main stages and results
The beginning of the revolution was the events of January 9, 1905. In Petersburg. Priest G. A. Gapon, associated with Zubatov since 1902 and since 1904. headed the Assembly of Factory Workers of St. Petersburg,
Reforms P.A. Stolypin
The implementation of reforms is associated with the name of P.A. Stolypin, who proclaimed the principle: “first calm, and then reforms.” The government program published on August 24 was carried out in this spirit.
Russian participation in the First World War
Back in 1882, the Triple Alliance was concluded consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. He was opposed by the alliance between England, France and Russia that arose just before the start of the war, created in
February Revolution 1917
By the beginning of 1917 A critical situation has developed in Russia. The economy overcame the difficulties of the first months of the war and provided the armed forces with everything they needed relatively well. However, under the influence
Alternatives for the development of Russia and socio-political practice in the spring-summer of 1917
The February Revolution and the overthrow of the autocracy forced Russia to choose a path for further development. The situation in the country had changed radically, but the prospects were still unclear. In Russia there was to be
Political situation in the fall of 1917. The Bolsheviks came to power
The failure of the “Kornilovism” at the end of August 1917 opened the way for the Bolsheviks to come to power. The Bolshevization of the Soviets began in some places. From September 1917, the leadership of the Soviets passed to them and their rubbish
Civil war in Russia: causes, course, results
The proclamation of Soviet power as a result of the October Revolution intensified open confrontation in society. Already the following year, the intensity of political passions in Russia kindled mercilessly
Transition to a new economic policy. Transformations based on the New Economic Policy
20 - 30s The 20th century occupy its very definite place in world and domestic history. It was at this time that a new geopolitical and economic situation was emerging in Europe,
Internal party struggle during the NEP years
With the transition to the NEP, a certain liberalization of the political regime occurs. The armed forces were significantly reduced (by 10 times), the coercive system was weakened, and a “revival” took place.
Education USSR
A description of the country's socio-political development in the 1920s would be incomplete without an analysis of the problems of nation-state building and the country's relations with the external world.
Socio-economic development: course towards industrialization and collectivization
Industrialization - the creation of large-scale machine production, primarily heavy industry (energy, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, petrochemicals and other basic industries); P
The formation of a totalitarian system and the establishment of the regime of personal power of V.I. Stalin
Modern researchers have different assessments of the nature of the changes that occurred in the political system of the Soviet state in the 30s. Most people call this time a victory.
Foreign policy of the Soviet state in the 1920-30s
The end of the First World War (the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919), the civil war and foreign intervention in Russia created new conditions in international relations.
Culture in the 1920s and 30s
The policy of the Soviet state in the field of culture in the 20-30s. was focused on transforming the education system, social sciences, literature, art into tools for “educating
The beginning of the war. Reasons for the failures of the Red Army
What was the policy of the Soviet Union after the outbreak of World War II? In 1939-1940 Stalin was primarily concerned with the annexation of the territories of Eastern Europe to the USSR.
A turning point in the course of the war
In July 1942, German troops under the command of Field Marshal F. Paulus launched an attack on Stalingrad (now Volgograd), the former key point in the Volga region. 23 August fascist
The end of the Great Patriotic War and the Second World War. Results and price of victory
In 1944, the offensive operations of the Red Army continued. Their peculiarity was that the offensive was carried out along the entire front, from Odessa in the south to Pechenga in the north (so
Restoration and development of the national economy
During the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet Union suffered not only the greatest human losses but also enormous material damage, which amounted to an astronomical amount of about 3 trillion
Internal political life of the country. 1945-1953
The transition to peaceful construction required reformation of government bodies. In September 1945, the State Defense Committee (GKO) was abolished, whose functions were transferred to the Sovereign
Socio-economic and political transformations of N.S. Khrushchev
In March 1953, I.V. died. Stalin. Immediately after his death, the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee was held, at which positions in government and party management were distributed. Key positions in
Foreign policy of the USSR. 1945-1964
As a result of the defeat of Germany and its allies, the geopolitical structure of the world acquired new centers of influence, and the world became increasingly bipolar. In the balance of power the main role now belonged to
Reform of 1965 and socio-economic development of the country
After the dismissal of N.S. Khrushchev at the October (1964) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, L.I. Brezhnev was elected First Secretary of the Party Central Committee. At first, many from the party circle
Features of political and spiritual development
In 1977, a new Soviet Constitution was adopted. It was based on the concept of developed socialism. By the mid-70s, it became clear that the construction of communism, outlined by the Program
Searching for ways to “improve socialism”: changes in the economic, social, political spheres
After Chernenko’s death, a struggle for the post of leader of the country began in the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee. M.S. won this fight. Gorbachev, who had many years of experience in party work,
The politics of “new thinking” in international relations
The ideological basis on which international relations of the USSR were built during the perestroika period was the so-called new political thinking. New policy announced by Soviet
Exacerbation of national problems. Collapse of the USSR
One of the problems that caused the collapse of perestroika and the collapse of the USSR was the aggravation of interethnic relations, which was explained by numerous problems in national relations.
Socio-economic transformations
In 1992, economic measures were continued to transition from command-administrative management principles to a market-based regulatory system. The core of the economic reform was the “sho” program
Radical political modernization
The course towards economic liberalization, the ongoing economic crisis and the lack of social guarantees caused dissatisfaction and irritation among a significant part of the population. Dissatisfaction result
The main directions of foreign policy activity of modern Russia
After the collapse of the USSR, Russia's position in the international arena changed. The foreign policy concept of the Russian Federation included the following tasks: - preserving
