Social institutions of the spiritual sphere and their role in the life of society. Social institutions of religion
Just ten years ago, receiving knowledge and education from a materialistic position, we assumed that such specific institutions as religion and its organizations would cease to be factors in national social life and would lose their position in influencing people’s worldview.
An analysis of the reality of our days has shown the fallacy and haste of conclusions of this kind. Today, even with the unprofessional eye of the average person, one can notice that there is a noticeable activation of religious institutions that are directly trying to participate in solving a number of pressing problems of our time. This can be observed in different regions, in countries with different levels of economic development, where different religions are common. Russia was not spared the phenomenon of intensified religious activity, and the troubled times of the so-called reforms further contributed to the intensification of this activity. What is the value of religion for humanity, what are its social functions? These and other questions must be answered in the process of sociological analysis of religion as a social institution. Before considering religion from this point of view, it is necessary to consider what the concept of “social institution” is.
Social institutions are organized associations of people performing certain socially significant functions that ensure the joint achievement of goals based on the social roles performed by members, defined by social values, norms and patterns of behavior. And the process of streamlining, formalizing and standardizing social connections and relationships is called institutionalization. Since the middle of the last century, an independent direction called “sociology of religion” has emerged and then greatly developed in sociology and religious studies. E. Durkheim, M. Weber and other famous scientists and public figures devoted their works to the study of religion as a social institution, incl. and K. Marx. According to Marx's theory, religion as a social phenomenon is an objective factor that externally and coercively influences people like any other social institution. Marx thus laid the foundation for the functional method of studying religion. Religion, according to Marx, is more determined by social relations than a factor determining them. Its social function is to interpret, rather than produce, existing relations. Social function of religion - function
ideological: it either justifies and thereby legitimizes existing orders, or condemns them, denying them the right to exist. Religion can perform the function of integrating society, but it can also act as a factor disintegrating society when conflicts arise on religious grounds.
Religion, from the point of view of absolute criteria, sanctions certain views, activities, relationships, institutions, giving them an aura of holiness, or declares them wicked, fallen away, mired in evil, sinful, contrary to the law, the word of God, and refuses to recognize them. The religious factor influences the economy, politics, state, interethnic relations, family, culture through the activities of religious individuals, groups, and organizations in these areas. There is an overlap of religious relations with other social relations.
The degree of influence of a religion is related to its place in society, and this place is not given once and for all; it, as already noted, changes in the context of the processes of sacralization, secularization, and pluralization. Such processes are not unilinear, contradictory, uneven in civilizations and societies of different types, at different stages of their development, in different countries and regions in certain socio-political and cultural situations.
The impact on the individual, society and its subsystems, tribal, national, regional, world religions, as well as individual religious movements and denominations, is unique. In their creed, cult, organization, ethics, there are specific features that are expressed among followers in the rules of attitude towards the world, in the daily behavior of followers in various areas of public and personal life; put their stamp on “economic man”, “political man”, “moral man”, “artistic man”, “ecological man”, in other words, on various aspects of culture. The motivation system, and therefore the direction and effectiveness of economic activity, was different in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Catholicism, Calvinism, Orthodoxy, and the Old Believers. Tribal, national-national (Hinduism, Confucianism, Sikhism, etc.), world religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam), their directions and confessions were included in interethnic and interethnic relations in different ways. There are noticeable differences in the morality of a Buddhist, a Taoist, and a follower of a tribal religion. Art, its types and genres, artistic images developed in its own way in contact with certain religions. The works of the founders of the sociology of religion determined all its subsequent development, the main directions of research, problems, and methodology. By the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the sociology of religion is emerging as an independent discipline.
66. What does the sociology of religion study?
Sociology of religion is one of the areas of general sociology, the task of which is to study religion as a social phenomenon. She studies religion as one of the social subsystems, as a social institution, as a factor motivating people's social behavior. For example, if philosophy in its studies of religion tries to penetrate into the essence of certain beliefs (to find the truth), then sociology seeks to identify the influence of certain beliefs on people’s behavior.
Sociology of religion is a concrete science. In her research, she subjects to sociological analysis only those aspects of religion (social facts) that were identified as a result of empirical research (survey, observation, experiment, etc.).
The founders of the sociology of religion are E. Durkheim and M. Weber. Thus, Durkheim believed that religion is one of the social institutions that arose to satisfy certain social needs. Therefore, to study it it is necessary to apply sociological methods and evaluation criteria. The meaning and purpose of religion is to cultivate social (public) feelings and ideas, rituals and religious actions, which become mandatory for all members of society and in the minds of individuals (groups) are an objective reality.
M. Weber also viewed religion as a social institution. However, unlike Durkheim, he did not believe that religion, as an objective reality, completely subordinates an individual or group to its authority and power. According to Weber, religion forms the basis of a system of values and norms that give meaning and meaning to the behavior and way of thinking of each individual, each social group and thereby contributes to individual self-realization.
Significant contributions to the development of the sociology of religion were made by such scientists as G. Simmel, B. Malinovsky, T. Parsons, T. Lukman, R. Bel, A.I. Ilyin, N.A. Berdyaev and others.
67. What is religion and what is its essence?
Religion is a system of beliefs in the existence of a certain transcendental authority (supernatural ideological structure) that evaluates (controls) the actions and thinking of an individual, group, or social community.
Transcendent (from Latin - going beyond) - inaccessible to knowledge; beyond what can be comprehended by natural methods. Therefore, religious dogmas in themselves are not subject to scientific analysis. They are either accepted on faith or rejected.
Each religion is characterized by certain, specific ritual actions, which, according to believers, contribute to the establishment of direct and feedback connections with the object of worship. For example, the rite of baptism in Christianity, circumcision in Judaism and Islam, meditation in Buddhism and Hinduism, etc.
The earliest forms of religion are the following: magic (witchcraft, sorcery); totemism (kinship with certain animals); fetishism (cult of inanimate objects); animism (belief in the soul and spirits), etc. Religion is one of the components of human culture. Having arisen at the early stage of primitive society, it goes through a long development path from tribal forms to global ones.
As the social structure of society becomes more complex, the structure of religion also becomes more complex. At the same time, changes are taking place in the relationship between religion and society. For example: in a primitive society there are still no special differences between social life and the performance of religious rites, and there are no professional clergy. During the period of decomposition of the tribal system, separate, relatively independent elements of religion begin to emerge (priests, shamans, etc.), but in general, social and religious life coincide. With the emergence of the state, relatively independent religious structures begin to form, a special class of clergy appears, religious buildings (temples, monasteries, etc.) are built. But for all the periods of development of religion listed above, one indispensable condition is characteristic - a person who is outside religion is considered both outside the law and outside society, since religion was not separated from society and the state. In some countries this situation continues to this day (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Iran, etc.).
The emergence of civil society and the rule of law contributed to the separation of church and state. In conditions of democracy and pluralism, adherence to a particular religion is determined not by legal acts, but by the free choice of each member of society.
At different periods of history, in different countries and regions of the world, the role of religion was very ambiguous. In a primitive tribal society, one or another totem was the patron of a certain clan, served as a symbol of faith and hope, and united a certain group of people. In the pre-Christian period, in a class society, religion merged with the state and their functions were not easy to differentiate.
At the dawn of our era, Christianity arose as a revolutionary doctrine about the equality of all people before God and was directed against the Roman state. The paradox of history is that later the main persecutor of the Christian religion, Rome, became the main city of the Christian world.
During the Middle Ages in Europe, the Catholic Church claimed to be the main political force in resolving the most important state and interstate issues. Many future monarchs had to ask the Pope for a blessing before ascending to the throne. For several centuries, the Crusades shook not only Europe, but also other regions of the world. The “sacred” church court decided the fate of millions of people.
With the development of bourgeois market relations, the frozen dogmas of Christianity began to slow down social progress. In the XVI-XVII centuries. heterogeneous socio-political movements undermine the power of the Catholic Church. As a result of the reformation of the church, the state and society were freed from church tutelage, and the church itself was freed from the state. Secularization - liberation from church influence - contributed to the formation of a modern secular culture of society.
In the modern world, the role of religion in different countries is also ambiguous. In a democratic society, religion is one of the social institutions of civil society, the role and functions of which are regulated by constitutional norms. But there are countries in which religion continues to have a significant influence on the domestic and foreign policies of the state and limit human rights. Many international terrorist organizations use religious ideology for their own purposes.
68. Why does religion arise?
Among the variety of factors and reasons for the emergence of religion, five main ones can be identified.
1. Social and socio-climatic - human vulnerability to natural disasters and social disasters (wars, famines, epidemics, etc.). The desire to find protection in the supernatural.
2. Epistemological (cognitive) - the ability of human consciousness, in the course of cognitive activity, to impart supernatural (transcendental) properties to objects and phenomena that a person is not able to study experimentally. Abstract ideas about certain phenomena, based not on knowledge, but on faith.
3. Psychological, related to the impact of religious activities on the human psyche. For example, an individual may experience visions (hallucinations), strong emotional arousal, etc. during a religious ceremony.
4. Socio-psychological - a common faith and joint religious actions contribute to the integration of people within a certain socio-cultural community (Durkheim).
5. Historical - the conditionality of the existing religion by its previous development, i.e., historical roots.
69. What is the structure of religion?
Religion as a social institution is a complex social system. The main elements of the structure of religion are: religious consciousness, religious cult, religious organization.
1. Religious consciousness is a specific form of social consciousness, the main feature of which is belief in the supernatural. Religious consciousness can be conditionally divided into two components - religious psychology and religious ideology.
Religious psychology includes various properties of the human psyche that are directly or indirectly related to religion, for example, myths, traditions, ideas, attitudes, prejudices, emotions, moods, opinions, etc. Each of the properties of the psyche takes its place in the structure of religious psychology and fulfills its specific role. So, for example, if emotions and moods are very changeable, then traditions and myths can be passed on from generation to generation for many hundreds of years. Religious psychology is the everyday level of religious knowledge.
Religious ideology in the structure of religious knowledge represents a theoretical level. If religious psychology is based on everyday ideas about religion, then religious ideology presupposes a systematized theoretical justification of religious dogmas and religious practices. It is the basis (guide to action) for uniting believers and creating a religious organization. The main sources of the emergence and development of religious ideology are sacred texts and scriptures. In the Christian religion, such a source is the Bible, in Islam - the Koran. Religious ideology is the basis (guide to action) for uniting believers and creating a religious organization.
Religious and political elites at all times and in different countries have strived and are striving to “privatize” religious ideology, to make it an obedient weapon in achieving their selfish goals. This often leads to religious conflicts and wars both between adherents of different religions (for example, between Christians and Muslims), and between adherents of different directions in the same religion (between Sunnis and Shiites in Islam, Catholics and Orthodox Christians, etc.).
2. Religious cult (from Latin - veneration) - a system of symbolic forms and actions with the help of which believers seek to express their commitment to a particular religion or influence the supernatural. For example, the cross is a symbol of the Christian religion, the crescent is a symbol of the Muslim religion; in Christianity, such rites as baptism of newborns and funeral services for the dead are considered obligatory; In Rus', to influence supernatural forces, the church often organized an “extraordinary procession of the cross.”
3. Religious organizations are a certain form of association and management of believers. There are four main types of religious organizations: church, sect, denomination, cult.
70. What types of religious organizations are there?
In the scientific literature, it is generally accepted that all religious organizations are divided into four main types: church, sect, denomination, cult.
The church (from the Greek - God's house) is an open, mass religious organization that has close ties with broad layers of society and operates within it. The main features of the church are: the presence of a more or less developed dogmatic and cult system; the presence of a special layer of people - clergy (clergy) and ordinary believers - parishioners; a centralized system for managing individual church units; the presence of specific religious buildings and structures.
A sect is a special religious organization (group of believers) that rejects the basic values of the official church and the bulk of believers. Typically, a sect is formed by a group of believers that breaks away from the main church. A sect is a closed or semi-closed organization, in order to join which you must undergo a certain initiation ritual. Leaving a sect can also be difficult.
A denomination is an intermediate link between a church and a sect. It is more open and numerous than a sect, but is also, in essence, a religious organization that has broken away from the official church. For example, such Protestant denominations as Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists, etc. arose as a result of a split from the Christian church. Sometimes denominations are formed as a result of the expansion (enlargement) of sects. Denominations are most characteristic of those countries in which freedom of religion has become the basis of religious pluralism (USA, Canada, etc.).
A cult is a closed religious organization (an extreme form of a sect), which is based on the worship of some false messiah. The harmful influence of some cult religious organizations on young people (teenagers) causes legitimate indignation of their parents and the public. Often the activities of such organizations become the subject of investigation by law enforcement agencies.
In Russia there are currently more than a million adepts (adherents) of various totalitarian religious sects, many of which are banned in the West or are there under the strict control of special services.
71. What are the social functions of religion?
All religious relations, ultimately, are one of the types of social relations, and religion itself is a complex social system that regulates relations between people. At all times and under any conditions, religious institutions, in addition to religious functions, also performed social functions, that is, they acted as social institutions. Religion is not so much the relationship of a person to God (Gods), but rather the relationship between people regarding God (Gods).
The main functions of religion as a social institution:
1. Illusory-compensatory - giving a person hope in real life and in the other world.
2. Worldview - belief in the existence of some transcendental authority, which (faith) largely determines the system of value orientations, ways of thinking of believers and their perception of the world around them.
3. Regulatory - the creation and functioning of a certain system of values and norms that motivates the behavior of believers.
4. Integrative - a believer identifies (identifies) himself with a certain social community of people who hold the same religious views. The feeling of unity with “brothers” in faith is inherent in all believers. However, this feeling is often used to divide people into “us” and “strangers”.
5. Function of demarcation (ideological) - in the modern world, religion has become a powerful means of ideological influence on the consciousness of people with the aim of dividing opposition to each other.
We can also name other social functions of religion, for example, such as: educational, socialization function, normative and legal, political, cultural, ideological, etc.
72. What is the role of religion in the consolidation and division of people?
Religion plays a huge role in the consolidation and identification of people. Already in the primitive era, a clan or tribe expressed its identity by associating itself with a specific totem (animal, plant, etc.). The totem was both a patron and a symbol (emblem, coat of arms), and a factor in uniting people. In modern world religions, totem symbols are such attributes of religion as a cross in Christianity, a crescent in Islam, a statue or image of Buddha in Buddhism, etc.
Another unifying factor in religion are joint religious ceremonies: religious processions, mass pilgrimages to holy places, ritual religious dance, joint prayer, etc. Joint ceremonies (even rituals of grief and loss), according to E. Durkheim, evoke a state of unity among their participants and excitement, which involves the mobilization of all active forces.
The next factor in the unity of people is the religious worldview (faith). It presupposes unity of views, value orientations, and certain forms of behavior for all adherents of a particular religion. The religious worldview is the main unifying factor for believers. And written sources (Bible, Koran, Talmud, etc.), which set out the basic postulates (statements, requirements, axioms) of faith, are considered sacred for every believer.
As a consolidating factor, one can name the self-identification (self-determination) of an individual who may not be a convinced believer, may not visit temples, may not pray, but consider himself a supporter of a particular religion.
But any social identification involves comparison and contrast. In order to consolidate within the framework of their religious identity (faith, confession), people must somehow distinguish it from others, that is, divide people into “us” and “strangers”. At the same time, as a rule, one’s own faith and its adherents are assessed more positively than others. These assessments can be cultivated consciously, or they can arise at the subconscious level. This is the essence of identification.
The consolidating properties of religion have been widely used at all times by various kinds of political adventurers, nationalists, ambitious religious figures and patriots. Religious ideology is a powerful means of mobilizing people both to defend the fatherland and to wage wars of conquest. So, in the XI-XIII centuries. The Catholic Church initiated and blessed the “crusades”, and in the 16th-18th centuries. - Huguenot wars. In the Middle Ages, most wars of conquest and liberation acquired a religious character. In Muslim vocabulary there is even such a concept as “gazavat” (jihad) - meaning the “holy war” of Muslims against non-believers.
Religious wars are not a thing of the past. And in the modern world, ambitious politicians and terrorist organizations use religion to achieve their selfish goals. As a result, entire peoples and countries are falling apart and fighting among themselves along religious lines. Thus, the former Yugoslavia broke up into Orthodox Serbia, Catholic Croatia, Muslim Bosnia and other “religious” enclaves. In Northern Ireland, the once united people have been “divided” into Catholics and Protestants, and a permanent war has been going on between these religious communities for many decades (according to other estimates, many centuries). In Iraq, two branches of the Muslim religion - Shiites and Sunnis - are killing each other. International adventurers are trying to divide the whole world along religious lines and start a World War on this basis. According to some researchers, this war (the Fourth World War) has already begun.
Literature
Weber M. Sociology of religion / Favorites. The image of society. - M., 1994.
Volkov Yu.G. Sociology: Elementary course. - M., 2003.
Garadzha V.I. Sociology of religion. - M., 1996.
Simmel G. Towards the sociology of religion // Questions of Sociology. 1993. No. 3.
Moscovici S. The machine that creates gods. - M., 1998.
Religion and Society: A Reader on the Sociology of Religion. - M., 1996.
Smelser N. Sociology. - M., 1994.
Sociological encyclopedia. In 2 volumes. T. 2. - M., 2003.
Ugrinovich D.M. Art and religion. - M., 1982.
Freud Z. The future of one illusion. Psychoanalysis and religion // Twilight of the Gods. - M., 1989.
It has the following features: 1 - It turns into a social institution earlier than others. 2 - A system of relations that develops as a result of the consolidation of religious norms. 3 - Arises after mythological consciousness.
As you know, religion exists not only as a system of ideas, perception and explanation of the world. The power and significance of religion in the life of society is great because religion (religious practice) functions as the most important social institution that ensures appropriate behavior of people.
The main elements of religion as an institutionalized system are:
Religious symbols, ideas, treatises, dogmas, teachings recorded in the Holy Scriptures, Torah, Koran, etc.
A cult that emotionally supports a believer’s attachment to a given religion, developing religious feelings in him: temple services, prayers, holidays, ceremonies, rituals;
Organization of interactions between people regarding religious practice - church. The latter organizes, coordinates, and controls the religious activities of all adherents of a given religion, conducting a clear status-role demarcation between the clergy. Priests carrying out religious, cultic and ideological-religious activities, and laymen, i.e. ordinary people.
The church unites followers of one religion into a single social group and is an important social organization in any society.
Religion as a sacred (sacred) form of meaning-making for people’s activities, a transcendental (i.e., going beyond the everyday world) justification for human existence, has played and continues to play a diverse role in the life of society and man.
Functions of religion
Religion as a social institution performs the following functions in society.
Worldview function. All over the world, religion provides answers to burning questions about the meaning of existence, the cause of human suffering and the essence of death. These responses give people a sense of purpose. Instead of feeling like helpless beings dragging out a meaningless existence under the blows of fate, believers are convinced that their lives are part of a single divine plan.
Compensatory function. The answers that religion gives to questions about the meaning of existence give believers consolation, convincing them that their suffering on earth is not in vain. Religious rituals associated with critical events such as illness and death allow people to maintain peace of mind during the bitter hours of life and reconcile them with the inevitable. The individual knows that others sympathize with him and finds comfort in familiar and clearly established rituals.
Function of social self-identification. Religious teachings and practices unite believers into a community of people who share the same values and pursue the same goals (“we Jews”, “we Christians”, “we Muslims”). Religious rituals, such as those that accompany a marriage ceremony, connect the bride and groom to a larger community of people who wish the couple well. The same applies to other religious rites, such as the baptism of an infant or the funeral service for a deceased person.
Social regulatory function. Religious teachings are not entirely abstract. They are also applicable to people's daily lives. For example, four of the Ten Commandments preached by Moses to the Israelites relate to God, but the other six contain instructions for everyday life, including relationships with parents, employers and neighbors.
Social control function. Religion not only sets standards for everyday life, but also controls people's behavior. Most rules of a religious group apply only to its members, but some rules also impose restrictions on other citizens who do not belong to the religious community. An example of this provision is religious instructions included in criminal legislation. Thus, in Russia, blasphemy and adultery were once criminal offenses for which people were tried and punished to the fullest extent of the law. Laws prohibiting the sale of liquor before 12 noon on Sundays—or even the sale of “non-essential goods” on Sundays—provide another illustration of this point.
Adaptive function. Religion can help people adapt to a new environment. For example, it is not so easy for immigrants to adapt to what they perceive as strange customs of a new country. By preserving their native language, familiar rituals and beliefs, religion provides an inextricable link between immigrants and their cultural past.
Protective function. Most religions support the government and resist any changes in the social situation, directing their sacred authority against forces demanding to break the status quo, revolutionaries, and condemns coup attempts. The Church protects and supports the existing government, and the government, in turn, provides support to the confessions that protect it.
Social-critical function. Although religion is often so closely associated with the prevailing social order that it resists change, there are times when it criticizes the current situation in society.
Social forms of religious organization
Religious community
The universal church is a religious structure that to some extent contributes to the integration of society and at the same time, through the beliefs and ideas contained in it, satisfies the majority of the personal needs of individuals at all social levels. It is characterized by a systematic and effective combination of the qualities of both church and sect. Its universality is manifested in the fact that it covers all members of society, and in the fact that there is a close relationship between the two main functions of religion. In heterogeneous societies, such a balance is achieved with great difficulty and cannot be maintained for very long: the insufficient completeness of the system, the persistent desire of the ruling groups to maintain an order acceptable to them without changes that are inevitable in a changing society, differences in individual needs - all this stimulates the schismatic tendencies that are so typical for religions of complex societies.
Ecclesia. Like the universal church, the ekklesia (from the Greek ekklesia - church) embraces the entire society. The difference is that sectarian tendencies are less pronounced in it. It adapts so well to the demands and needs of the dominant social elements that the needs of the lower classes are frustrated. Ecclesia is better able to enhance the impact of existing patterns of social integration than to perform many of the individual functions of religion. It can be defined as the universal church in a state of ossification.
Becker describes the ekklesia as follows: “The social structure known as the “ekklesia” is a predominantly conservative formation, not in open conflict with the secular aspects of social life, openly universal in its goals... In its full development, the ekklesia attempts to merge with the state and with the ruling classes and seeks to establish control over the personality of each individual. Members of the ecclesia belong to it from birth; they do not need to join it. However, it is a social structure, somewhat akin to the nation or the state, and in no sense chosen... The ecclesia by its nature attaches great importance to the prayers it conducts, the system of doctrine which it formulates, the official administration of worship and education with sides of the spiritual hierarchy. The ecclesia as an intrasocial structure is closely fused with national and economic interests; since this is the pattern of the majority, its very essence forces it to adapt its ethics to the ethics of the secular world; it must represent the morality of the respectable majority"
Denomination. This type of religious organization does not have the same universality as the ecclesia, since it is limited by class, national, racial and sometimes regional boundaries. With a certain stretch, a denomination can also be called a church, since it is in relative, but not perfect harmony with the secular power structure. The church of the “pure” type contains sectarian elements, and its members represent all social and class levels in society. Many denominations began their existence as sects and have not yet completely broken away from their origins.
Denominations are very diverse, for example, in the United States they range from Congregationalism, which has persistent sectarian tendencies, to Lutheranism, which has perfectly adapted to secular power structures. In general, denominations, as a rule, tend to follow the path of compromise. This is partly due to the fact that in modern society, in contrast to the relative religious unity of the Middle Ages, sectarian elements are more inclined to form their own institutions rather than integrate with the universal church.
A stable sect is a small religious group that is not inclined to compromise with the state and church. Sects are unstable by their very nature. Either the group disintegrates and disappears when its leader and other members die, or it is incorporated into a more formal structure that has the ability to admit new members and ensure that their common interests are served. Professional religious leaders appear when the enthusiasm of the first generation of sectarians, which determined the democracy of the movement, declines and the tension of direct opposition to the established social order subsides. And yet, the final transition to the fold of the national church may not happen.
Cult. The term "cult" is used in various ways. Firstly, this concept denotes a small religious group of people seeking their own mystical experience, with an undeveloped organizational structure and a charismatic leader. This group is in many ways reminiscent of a sect, but it is characterized by a deeper break with the dominant religious tradition in society. Secondly, by cult is meant that type of religious organization that is furthest removed from the type of “universal church.” It is a small, short-lived, often local organization, usually built around an authoritative leader (compare with the tendency for ordinary sect members to participate widely in religious practice).
Social organizations
Social organization is an association of people who jointly implement a certain program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules. Social organizations vary in complexity, task specialization, and formalization of roles and procedures. There are several types of classification of social organizations. The most common classification is based on the type of membership people have in an organization. In accordance with this criterion, three types of organizations are distinguished: voluntary, coercive or totalitarian and utilitarian.
IN voluntary People join organizations to achieve goals that are considered morally significant, to obtain personal satisfaction, increase social prestige, and the opportunity for self-realization, but not for material reward. These organizations, as a rule, are not associated with state or government structures; they are formed to pursue the common interests of their members. Such organizations include religious, charitable, socio-political organizations, clubs, interest associations, etc.
Distinctive feature totalitarian organizations is involuntary membership, when people are forced to join these organizations, and life in them is strictly subject to certain rules, there are supervisory personnel who deliberately control people’s environment, restrictions on communication with the outside world, etc. The named organizations are prisons, the army, monasteries, etc.
IN utilitarian People join organizations to receive material rewards and wages.
In real life, it is difficult to identify pure types of the organizations considered; as a rule, there is a combination of characteristics of different types.
Based on the degree of rationality in achieving goals and the degree of efficiency, traditional and rational organizations are distinguished.
The goals of an organization are its fundamental element. Target- is the desired result or condition that members of an organization strive to achieve to satisfy collective needs . There are three main types of goals:
1) objectives of the task: plans, instructions given externally by an organization of a higher rank,
2) orientation goals: common interests of participants realized through the organization,
An important point in joint activity is the combination of task goals and orientation goals. The goals of the system must fit into the mission goals and orientation goals.
Every organization must adapt to the influence of the surrounding external environment. The activities of a social organization are influenced by:
State and political system,
Competitors and labor market, economics,
Social and cultural factors
Religion is a set of values, norms and rules of behavior related to the sphere of the transcendent; a form of organization of social interaction focused on the sacred. Religion is one way of giving meaning to social action.
Theories of religion. The sociological approach to religion was formed to a great extent under the influence of the ideas of three “classics” of sociology: K. Marx, E. Durkheim and M. Weber.
Emile Durksheim viewed religion from the perspective of structural functionalism. The scientist defined religion, contrasting the concepts "sacred" And " profane"(worldly). Sacred objects and symbols, he argues, are considered outside the ordinary aspects of existence that form the realm of the mundane.
Sacral - (from English, sacral and Latin sacrum - sacred, dedicated to the gods) in a broad sense, everything related to the Divine, religious, otherworldly, irrational, mystical, different from everyday things, concepts, phenomena. Contrasted with the profane - secular, worldly
E. Durkheim emphasized that religions have never been just a set of beliefs. Any religion is characterized by constantly repeating rituals And rituals, in which groups of believers take part.
Ritual - (lat. ritualis - ritual, from lat. ritus, “solemn ceremony, cult rite”) - a set of rituals accompanying a religious act, or a custom-developed or established procedure for doing something; ceremonial
Ritual - a set of actions of a stereotypical nature, which is characterized by symbolic meaning. The stereotypical nature of the ritual actions, that is, their alternation in some more or less rigidly specified order, reflects the origin of the word “rite.” From an etymological point of view, it means precisely “putting something in order.” Rituals are characterized as traditional human actions. Rituals associated with birth, initiation, wedding, death are called family rites, and, for example, agricultural ones - calendar rites.
Through collective rituals, the feeling of group solidarity is confirmed and strengthened. Rituals distract people from the worries of worldly life and transfer them to a sphere where sublime feelings reign and where they can feel merging with higher powers. These higher powers, which are supposedly totems, divine beings or gods, are in reality a reflection of the influence of the collective on the individual.
Rituals and rituals, from the point of view of E. Durkheim, are essential for strengthening the solidarity of members of social groups. This is the reason why rituals are found not only in standard situations of regular worship, but also in all major events associated with changes in the social status of a person and his loved ones, for example, at birth, marriage or death. Rituals and ceremonies of this kind are found in almost all societies. Durkheim concludes that collective rituals performed at moments when people are faced with the need to adapt to significant changes in their lives strengthen group solidarity. In small cultures of the traditional type, Durkheim argues, almost all aspects of life are literally permeated with religion. Religious rituals, on the one hand, give rise to new ideas and categories of thinking, and on the other hand, they strengthen already established values. Religion is not only a sequence of feelings and actions, it actually determines way of thinking people in traditional cultures.
Unlike E. Durkheim, who paid attention to the integrating function of religion, K. Marx, considering religion from the perspective of a conflictological approach, saw in it, first of all, a means of social control. He shared the view of religion as self-alienation characteristic of people. The opinion is often expressed that K. Marx rejected religion, but this is not true. Religion, in his opinion, is “the heart of a heartless world, a refuge from the cruel everyday reality.” From the point of view of K. Marx, religion in all traditional forms must disappear. The famous statement of K. Marx “religion is the opium of the people” can be interpreted as follows: religion promises that the reward for all the hardships of earthly life will be received in the afterlife, and teaches one to come to terms with existing life conditions. Possible happiness in the afterlife, thus, distracts attention from the fight against inequality and injustice in earthly life. In this case, K. Marx draws attention to the applied function of religion: religious beliefs and values often serve as a justification for property inequality and differences in social status. For example, the thesis that “to the meek is rewarded” assumes that those who follow this position take a position of submission and non-resistance to violence.
M. Weber, from the position of “understanding” sociology, undertook a large-scale study of religions existing in the world. The German sociologist primarily focuses on the study of the relationship between religious and social changes. M. Weber, unlike K. Marx, argues that religion is not necessarily a conservative force; on the contrary, social movements that had religious roots often led to dramatic changes in society. Thus, Protestantism influenced the formation of the capitalist development of the West.
Types of religious organizations. All religions are characterized by the presence of communities of believers, but the ways of organizing such communities are very diverse. The specificity of the sociological study of Christianity is that the church and the sect are considered as a dichotomy, and not as separate and unrelated phenomena. Concept of dichotomy "church-sect" was introduced into the sociology of religion by the German scientists M. Weber and E. Troeltsch. Sociologists of religion such as R. Niebuhr, B. Wilson and others also analyze in detail the church and sect, their similar characteristics and differences.
The church and sect are the largest religious organizations that regulate religious activities and religious relations in society. Over a long period of time, the church and the sect coexist, being in close connection with the actual situation in society and its development. Moreover, the differences between these religious organizations are both formal and substantive.
Based on the concepts of Weber and Troeltsch, one can imagine the main characteristics of the church and sect. The Church is a large religious organization that recognizes the importance of the state and other secular institutions in maintaining social order, and has a hierarchical organization based on the clergy. A church, as a rule, has a large number of followers, since membership in it is determined not by the free choice of the individual, but by tradition (by the fact of his birth in a particular religious environment, on the basis of the rite of baptism, the individual is automatically included in this religious community). In addition, the church does not have a permanent and strictly controlled membership.
Unlike a church, a sect is a small voluntary religious group that is created on the basis of the principle of exclusivity, requires complete submission from its members and emphasizes its isolation from society. Its characteristic features are voluntary membership, the perception of its attitudes and values as exceptional, the absence of division into clergy and laity, and a charismatic type of leadership.
Concept denominations was introduced into the sociology of religion by R. Niebuhr in his work “Social Sources of Denominationalism.” This type of religious association combines the features of a church and a sect. Most often, from the church it borrows a relatively high system of centralization and a hierarchical principle of management, recognition of the possibility of spiritual rebirth and salvation of the soul for believers. What brings it closer to a sect is the principle of voluntariness, constancy and strict control of membership, exclusivity of attitudes and values.
A study of denomination and its difference from a sect was also carried out by the English sociologist B. Wilson. Based on criticism of Niebuhr's concept of denomination, he focuses on the fact that not all sects undergo denominationalization. This process is influenced by various factors: the origin, leadership and original organization of the sect.
Church, sect and denomination are traditional forms of religious organization. Their characteristics are developed in detail in theoretical and empirical terms, and the terms are quite clearly defined. However, at the present stage of development of society, another type of religious organization is becoming increasingly widespread - new religious movements. They, according to the English sociologist of religion A. Barker, “offer a religious or philosophical worldview or a means by which some higher goal can be achieved, for example, transcendental knowledge, spiritual enlightenment, self-realization or “true * 4 development.”
Characterizing the social nature of the emergence of NRMs, researchers note that their greatest activity is manifested in eras of crisis and social upheaval, in “turning-point” periods of history associated with profound changes in the economy, political sentiment, and a person’s general perception of the world. The increased distrust of the official ideology and the dominant religion that accompanies these phenomena contributes to an increase in the number of new religious movements that offer their adherents a different understanding of social problems and ways of their possible resolution.
Functions of religion. The most significant functions of religion as a social institution include: integrative; regulatory; psychotherapeutic; communicative.
- 1. The integrative function of religion was quite fully disclosed by E. Durktheim, who, while studying the primitive religions of the aborigines of Australia, drew attention to the fact that religious symbolism, religious values, rites and customs contribute to social cohesion, ensure the sustainability and stability of primitive societies. The adoption of a certain system of beliefs and symbols, according to Durktheim, includes a person in a religious moral community and serves as an integrative force that unites people.
- 2. The regulatory function of religion lies in the fact that it supports and strengthens the effect of social norms of behavior accepted in society, exercises social control, both formal - through the activities of church organizations that can encourage or punish believers, and informal, carried out by believers themselves as carriers moral standards in relation to other people. In essence, this function of religion could be called normative, since any religion prescribes to its adherents certain standards of behavior determined by the prevailing religious values.
- 3. Psychotherapeutic function of religion. Its sphere of action is, first of all, the religious community itself. It has long been noted that various religious actions associated with religious activities - services, prayers, rituals, ceremonies, etc. - have a calming, comforting effect on believers, give them moral fortitude and confidence, and protect them from stress.
- 4. The communicative function, like the previous ones, is important, first of all, for the believers themselves. Communication for believers takes place on two levels: communication of an individual with God (gods, spirits, etc.), communication of adherents within a group (with each other). “Communication with God” is considered the highest type of communication and, in accordance with this, communication with “neighbors” takes on a secondary character. The most important means of communication is religious activity - worship in church, public prayer, participation in sacraments, rituals, etc. The language of communication is religious symbols, sacred scriptures, and rituals.
These four functions of religion as a sociocultural institution are universal in nature and can manifest themselves in any type of religious practice.
An essential feature of the modern stage of development of religion, primarily in Western countries, is the process secularization. Secularization is interpreted as the process of replacing the religious-mythological picture of the world with a scientific-rational explanation, and a closely related weakening of the influence of religion on various social institutions - education, economics, politics, etc. Signs of secularization can also be the weakening of the role of religious sanctions as a means of social control, separation of church and state, the spread of scientific atheism, the transformation of religious faith into a private matter of the individual.
- Barker A. New religious movements: a practical introduction. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1997. P. 166.
Religion as a social institution
Introduction
Religion, as a phenomenon inherent in human society throughout its history and covering the vast majority of the world's population to this day, nevertheless turns out to be an area inaccessible and, at the very least, incomprehensible to many people.
Religion is a peculiar behavior (cult), worldview and attitude based on belief in the supernatural, inaccessible to human understanding.
Religion is a necessary component of social life, including the spiritual culture of society. It performs a number of important sociocultural functions in society. One of such functions of religion is worldview, or meaning-making. In religion as a form of spiritual exploration of the world, a mental transformation of the world is carried out, its organization in consciousness, in the course of which a certain picture of the world, norms, values, ideals and other components of the worldview are developed, which determine a person’s attitude to the world and act as guidelines and regulators of it. behavior.
1. The reasons for the emergence of religion and its functions
Religion as a social phenomenon has its reasons for its emergence and existence: social, epistemological and psychological.
Social reasons are those objective factors of social life that necessarily give rise to and reproduce religious beliefs. Some of them are related to people’s relationship to nature, others - to relationships between people.
People's relationship to nature is mediated by the available means and tools of labor. The less developed they are, the weaker a person is in the face of nature, the greater the dominance of natural forces over him. Primitive man had too limited means to influence the world around him. Unable to obtain the desired result by real means, he resorted to imaginary means. The English ethnographer B. Malinovsky, who studied the life of the tribes of Melanesia, noticed that magic precedes and accompanies those types of work of the islanders where there is no confidence in the results and chance plays a large role. Magic in such cases acted as a substitute for the real impact of man on nature.
In later eras, relationships between people continued to develop spontaneously. In this case, the laws of social development act as unknown spontaneous forces that determine the destinies of people. The causes of social phenomena in people's minds seem mysterious, supernatural and mystified. All this served as a prerequisite for the emergence of religion.
Epistemological reasons are prerequisites, possibilities for the formation of religious beliefs that arise in the process of human knowledge of the laws of natural phenomena. The emergence in a person of the ability to think abstractly, i.e. to isolate the general, essential and necessary in thinking, abstracting from the individual, unimportant and accidental, contributed to the development of theoretical knowledge. The ability to isolate the general and essential in thinking and record them in language allows us to understand the world more deeply, more accurately, more fully; but it also creates the possibility of transforming general concepts into certain “independent entities”, which are considered as existing outside and independently of the material world. Thus, abstraction in thinking from reality becomes an epistemological prerequisite for the formation of religious ideas.
The psychological reasons for the emergence and reproduction of religion are as follows. Religious beliefs also arise depending on the emotional state of people, their moods, experiences, etc. Constant and persistent negative emotions, including uncertainty and fear, as repeated experiences, can create favorable conditions for an individual to become involved in religion. In addition to fear and self-doubt, the same basis for religion is created by other negative emotions - feelings of grief, sorrow, loneliness. The constant accumulation of negative emotions in the absence of real opportunities to eliminate their source leads to the fact that a person seeks a means of getting rid of negative experiences, including in religion.
Religion has a number of functions. Its main function is defined as illusory-compensatory (to compensate, to replenish). Religion plays the role of an illusory compensator due to human weakness, his powerlessness, primarily social. Being unable to solve life's problems on earth, a person transfers their solution to the world of illusions. Religion promises to compensate for problems that cannot be solved in this world, to make up for their solution in the illusory other world. For this, decent behavior towards her and fulfillment of the rules prescribed by religion are sufficient.
The ideological function of religion is important. Specifically reflecting reality, it creates its own picture of the world order and accordingly motivates the behavior of the believer, his orientation in the world. Religion establishes certain norms of behavior, regulates the relationship of the believer in the family, everyday life, and society on the basis of developed systems and regulations, which is its regulatory function.
2. Structure and functions of religion
Religion is a multifunctional phenomenon; it performs many functions, affecting various aspects of social life. There is no single accepted list of the functions of religion, and there cannot be one, since it would be necessary to list almost all significant areas of human life. Therefore, we will focus only on those that are mentioned most often in religious studies.
In sociology, the structure of religion identifies the following components:
Religious consciousness, which can be ordinary (personal attitude) and conceptual (teaching about God, lifestyle standards, etc.);
Religious relations (cult, non-cult);
Religious organizations.
Main functions (roles) of religion:
Worldview - religion, according to believers, fills their lives with some special significance and meaning.
Compensatory, or consoling, psychotherapeutic is also associated with its ideological function and ritual part: its essence lies in the ability of religion to compensate, compensate a person for his dependence on natural and social disasters, remove feelings of his own powerlessness, difficult experiences of personal failures, grievances and the severity of life, fear of death.
Communicative – communication between believers, “communication” with gods, angels (spirits), souls of the dead, saints, who act as ideal intermediaries in everyday life and in communication between people. Communication is carried out, including in ritual activities.
Regulatory – the individual’s awareness of the content of certain value systems and moral norms, which are developed in each religious tradition and act as a kind of program for people’s behavior.
Integrative - allows people to recognize themselves as a single religious community, bound by common values and goals, gives a person the opportunity to self-determinate in a social system in which there are the same views, values and beliefs.
Political - leaders of various communities and states use religion to justify their actions, unite or divide people by religious affiliation for political purposes.
Cultural - religion promotes the spread of the culture of the carrier group (writing, iconography, music, etiquette, morality, philosophy, etc.).
Disintegrating - religion can be used to divide people, to incite hostility and even wars between different religions and denominations, as well as within the religious group itself. The disintegrating property of religion is usually spread by destructive followers who violate the basic commandments of their religion.
Psychotherapeutic – religion can be used as a means of psychotherapy.
3. Modern world religions
Religion, together with society, moved from imperfect beliefs: fetishism, totemism, magic and animism to modern world religions.
Three world religions turned out to be more perfect, and therefore the most widespread: Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. Their main feature, which allowed them to transcend the boundaries of one nation, is cosmopolitanism. These religions are addressed to all peoples, their cult is simplified, and there is no national specificity.
The most important idea of world religions - the equality of all believers before God, regardless of their social status, skin color and nationality - made it relatively easy for them to take the place of the existing many-faced deities and completely replace them. All world religions promise believers fair treatment, but only in the other world and depending on piety in this.
Buddhism is one of the first world religions. Originated in the 6th–5th centuries. BC in India. Subsequently, changing, it spread among the peoples of Central and Southeast Asia and the Far East. On the territory of Russia, Buddhism is practiced by Buryats, Kalmyks, Mongols, and Tuvans.
There are no reliable sources about the founder of Buddhism. But Buddhist theologians believe that he was the son of an Indian king named Siddhartha from the family of Gautama, who after his death began to be called Buddha (the enlightened one who had achieved wisdom). The main provisions of this doctrine are set out in the canonical collection Tipitaka. The Buddhist pantheon includes thousands of Buddhas, saints, bodhisattvas (beings who have achieved salvation, but continue to take part in the salvation of people), gods of local old religions, angels, demons, as well as the main god of Brahmanism - Brahma. All gods are divided into good and evil.
According to the teachings of Buddhism, everything in the world is a consequence of the endless movement of drachmas, spiritual and material particles. Their various combinations create objects, animals, humans, and decay leads to death, after which new combinations are created and rebirth occurs. Rebirth depends on good or bad deeds in life. The process of rebirth is called the “wheel of life”, or samsara. The ultimate goal of a virtuous life is merging with Buddha, immersion in nirvana (super-existence), i.e. overcoming all desires and passions, a break in the chain of rebirths, the cessation of reincarnations, absolute undisturbed peace.
