Psychic phenomena. What are psychic phenomena? State of “general tension”

Everything in our world operates according to certain rules. Psychology is no exception. As a science, it helps answer the question: “Why do people sometimes behave the way they do?” Six psychological effects will help you understand the cause-and-effect relationships of human behavior. Moreover, knowledge of these phenomena will allow you to monitor and control your own behavior.

Bystander effect. Psychological phenomenon of the group

In fact, this effect (Bystander effect, bystander apathy) is shown in the image of the Good Samaritan. Scientists call it “diffusion of responsibility.” For example, an ordinary passer-by finds himself in a difficult situation that requires help. As the study shows, he will have a higher chance of getting help if there was one witness, and a correspondingly lower chance if there were several witnesses.

During the study, scientists simulated an event in which high school students confronted and planned to beat up a younger “bespectacled and nerdy” guy in the school cloakroom, in front of other schoolchildren. 86% of those who watched it alone intervened and stood up for the victim. However, if two teenagers observed the same situation, then the chances of help and protection dropped to 64%. When the researchers increased the number of observers to four, the odds dropped to 30%.

However, this effect can be mitigated slightly. If you are unlucky enough to find yourself in a critical situation and you need help, then do not ask the public for help, but contact them more personally and specifically. Instead of “Help!” It’s better to say “Woman in a black dress, call an ambulance!”

Pygmalion effect. (Rosenthal) (Pygmalion effect, Rosenthal effect)

This psychological phenomenon gained popularity thanks to Robert Rosenthal, after whom it was named. The researcher tested the IQ of students in schools, and deliberately provided false information about the students' results. Children with high results were assigned average results. And those who had an average result were credited with the best IQ testing results. What happened next? Those schoolchildren who were introduced to teachers as more gifted and intelligent actually began to study more successfully and diligently. This happened because the plans and assumptions of teachers from specific students were higher than from others. A certain pressure from teachers forced the “average” ones to study. This research can be shaped by one tape - your assumptions and plans for a person or event shape your reality and thoughts.

The experiment was conducted in the field of education, but the conclusions can be applied in other fields. So, if you want to achieve certain heights, then it is better to set inflated targets in advance and evaluate your ability to achieve these goals much higher than the actual state of affairs. Also, scientists noticed another pattern. Leaders who set high performance standards for their teams achieve more than leaders who set achievable goals.

The effect of complete failure. (Pratfall effect)

If you've shown your audience that you're not perfect, there's a good chance your audience will see you in a more favorable light. When we need to impress our interlocutor and cause him to have a positive attitude towards you, we try to show advantages, not disadvantages. It turns out that another strategy will be much more effective. It is worth showing your vulnerability and weakness, because according to research, this is what stimulates empathy on the part of other people. For example, if a professor who speaks at a conference worries more, people will trust him faster than a lecturer who speaks confidently. That is, making mistakes in front of an audience is normal, and you can benefit from it in the form of a positive attitude.

Focus effect. (The focus effect)

People tend to overestimate the properties and qualities of things (phenomena) they think about. Is there a fundamental difference in the feeling of happiness between a person who receives 10 thousand dollars a year for work, and a person who earns 4 thousand hryvnia a month? In fact, there is a difference, but it is quite meager. Will you be happy if you move to live on the seashore or ocean, in a two-story house? Hardly. Thus, residents of Florida, despite 10 sunny months a year, are not much happier than residents of Chicago or New York.

The focusing effect is used quite widely by marketers. They try to convince a person that a certain purchase will make him happy and joyful, which is highly unlikely in the long run.

Spotlight effect. (Spotlight effect)

Most people, when walking down the street, are usually busy thinking. About family, work, credit, children, an interesting book, plans for the future. And when the thought process is busy with thoughts, people do not always pay attention to those around them.

In fact, passers-by frankly don’t care how ironed your shirt is or whether you’re wearing the right tie when you’re going to university or work. The vast majority of them will not even notice the flaw in your appearance, because they will be busy with their own thoughts, which are much more interesting to them. In the spotlight, under the conventional spotlight, you are less often than you think. That is why stop worrying about such “empty” attributes of human life, because those around you are more busy with their own problems than with your new smartphone, which you are trying to “shine” in front of others.

Psychological phenomena of decision making: the paradox of choice. (The paradox of choice)

As research by Mark Lepper and Shin Isengar shows, the more varied the choice, the lower the level of satisfaction with our decision. As part of the study, scientists offered a group of visitors to a hypermarket to take 1 of 6 types of jam for free. Others were asked to choose between 24 banks. The conclusions of the experiment demonstrated that 32% of the subjects who made a choice from 6 cans were completely satisfied with the decision. But of those who chose one species out of 24, only 3% were satisfied with the choice. The effect was discovered by Barry Schwartz. To avoid the paradox of choice, the researcher recommends limiting in your thoughts the number of likely choices to which you can be inclined.

These six psychological phenomena will make it easier for you to find cause-and-effect relationships in the behavior of your friends, colleagues and others. And don’t forget to try these effects on yourself. Ask yourself often: “Am I really attracting a lot of attention from passersby or is it a spotlight effect?”

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Usually there are three large groups of mental phenomena:

Ø mental processes;

Ø mental states;

Ø mental properties.

Mental process- this is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifested in the form reactions. The end of one mental process is closely related to the beginning of a new process. Hence the continuity of mental activity.

Mental processes are caused both by external influences and by stimulation of the nervous system coming from the internal environment of the body.

All mental processes are divided into educational(these include sensation and perception, representation, memory, thinking and imagination), emotional(active and passive experiences), strong-willed– decision, execution, volitional effort, and so on.

Mental processes ensure the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activity.

In complex mental activity, various processes are connected and form a single stream of consciousness, providing an adequate reflection of reality and the implementation of various types of activities. Mental processes occur with varying speed and intensity depending on the characteristics of external influences and personality states.

Under mental state one should understand the relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual.

Every person experiences different mental states every day. In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and ineffective.

Mental states are of a reflex nature: they arise under the influence of the situation, physiological factors, progress of work, time and verbal influences (praise, blame, and so on).

The most studied are:

Ø general mental state (for example, attention manifested at the level of active concentration or absent-mindedness);

Ø emotional states or moods (cheerful, enthusiastic, sad, sad, angry, irritable and others).

The highest and most stable regulators of mental activity are mental properties personality.

Mental properties of a person should be understood as stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior typical for a given person.

Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is consolidated in the process of practice, being the result of reflective and practical activity.

Personality properties are diverse. They are classified according to the grouping of mental processes on the basis of which they are formed:

Ø intellectual properties - observation, flexibility of mind;

Ø volitional properties – determination, perseverance;

Ø emotional properties - sensitivity, tenderness, passion, affectivity and the like.

Mental properties do not coexist together, they are synthesized and represent complex structural formations of the personality, which must include:

Ø a person’s life position (a system of needs, interests, beliefs, ideals that determines a person’s selectivity and level of activity);

Ø temperament, that is, a system of natural personality traits (mobility, balance of behavior and activity tone), characterizing the dynamic side of behavior;

Ø abilities (a system of intellectual-volitional and emotional properties that determines the creative capabilities of the individual);

Ø character as a system of relationships and modes of behavior.

(a) Isolation of individual phenomena from the general context of mental life

In any developed mental life, we are faced with such absolutely fundamental phenomena as the opposition of the subject to the object and the orientation of the “I” towards a certain content. In this aspect, awareness of the object (objective consciousness) is contrasted with the consciousness of “I”. This first distinction allows us to describe the objective anomalies (distorted perceptions, hallucinations, etc.) as such, and then ask how and why the consciousness of the Self might have undergone changes. But the subjective (relating to the state of the “I”) aspect of consciousness and the objective aspects of that “other” towards which the “I” is oriented are united when the “I” is embraced by what is outside of it, and at the same time encouraged from within to embrace this “otherness” external to him. A description of what is objective leads to an understanding of its meaning for the “I”, and a description of the states of the “I” (emotional states, moods, impulses, drives) leads to an understanding of the objective reality in which these states reveal themselves.

Subjective orientation towards a particular object is, of course, a constant and fundamental phenomenon of any understandable mental life; but this alone is not enough to differentiate phenomena. Direct experience is always a set of relationships, without analysis of which no description of phenomena is possible.

This set of relationships is based on the ways we experience time and space, our awareness of our own corporeality and the surrounding reality, further, it has its own internal division due to the opposition of states of feelings and drives, which, in turn, gives rise to further divisions.

All these divisions are overlapped by dividing the totality of phenomena into direct and indirect. Any phenomenon of mental life has the character of direct experience, but it is important for the soul that thinking and will are outside the sphere of this direct experience. The fundamental, primary phenomenon, without which analytical thinking and purposeful will are impossible, is denoted by the term reflection; this is the turning of experience back onto oneself and its content. From here all indirect phenomena arise, and the entire mental life of a person is imbued with reflexivity. Conscious mental life is not a heap of isolated, divisible phenomena, but a moving set of relationships from which we extract the data that interests us in the very act of describing them. This set of relationships changes along with the state of consciousness characteristic of the soul at a given moment in time. Any distinctions we make are transitory and sooner or later become obsolete (or we ourselves abandon them).

From this general view of mental life as a set of relationships it follows that:

1) phenomena can be delimited and defined only partially - to the extent that they are re-identifiable. Isolating phenomena from the general context of mental life makes them clearer and more distinct than they actually are. But if we strive for accurate concepts, fruitful observations and clear presentation of facts, we must accept this imprecision as a given:

2) phenomena can appear in our descriptions again and again, depending on which particular aspect is emphasized in them (for example, the phenomenology of perception can be considered both from the point of view of awareness of an object and from the point of view of feeling).

(b) Form and content of phenomena

Let us outline a number of provisions that have general significance for all phenomena that are subject to description. Form must be distinguished from content, which may change from time to time; for example, the fact of a hallucination should not be confused with its content, the function of which may be a person or a tree, threatening figures or peaceful landscapes. Perceptions, ideas, judgments, feelings, impulses of self-consciousness - all these are forms of mental phenomena; they designate varieties of existing existence, through which you reveal the content for us. True, when describing specific events of mental life, we take into account the content of the psyche of an individual, but in phenomenology we are only interested in the form. Depending on which aspect of the phenomenon - formal or content - we have in mind at any given moment, we can neglect its other aspect, that is, content analysis or phenomenological research, respectively. For the patients themselves, only the content is usually of significant importance. Often they are completely unaware of exactly how they experience this content; accordingly, they often confuse hallucinations, pseudohallucinations, illusory ideas, etc., because they do not attach importance to the ability to differentiate these things that are so insignificant for them.

On the other hand, content modifies the way phenomena are experienced: it gives phenomena a certain weight in the context of mental life as a whole and points the way to their comprehension and interpretation.

An excursion into the area of ​​form and content. Any cognition presupposes the distinction between form and content: this distinction is constantly used in psychopathology. Regardless of whether it deals with the simplest phenomena or complex wholes. Let's give a few examples.

1. In mental life there is always a subject and an object. We call the objective element in the broadest sense mental content, and we call the way the object appears to the subject (perception, idea, thought) form. Thus, hypochondriacal content, regardless of whether it is revealed through voices, obsessions, overvalued ideas, etc., is always available for identification as content. Similarly, we can talk about the content of fears and other emotional states.

2. The form of psychoses is contrasted with their particular content, for example, periodic phases of dysphoria as a form of illness should be contrasted with particular types of behavior (alcoholism, fugues, suicide attempts, etc.) as elements of the content.

3. Some of the most general changes affecting mental life as a whole, such as schizophrenia or hysteria, being interpretable only in psychological terms, can also be considered from a formal point of view. Any variety of human desire or aspiration, any variety of thought or fantasy can act as the content of one or another of a number of similar forms and find in them a way of revealing itself (schizophrenic, hysterical, etc.).

The main interest of phenomenology is centered on form; As for the content, it seems rather random. On the other hand, for an understanding psychology, content is always essential, but form can sometimes be unimportant.

(c) Transitions between phenomena

It seems that many patients are able to see with a spiritual gaze the same content in the form of various phenomenological forms quickly replacing each other. Thus, in acute psychosis, the same content - for example, jealousy - can take on a variety of forms (emotional state, hallucinations, delusional idea). It would be incorrect to talk about “transitions” from one form to another. The word “transition” as a general term is nothing more than a disguise for defects in analysis. The truth is that at every moment, every experience is woven from many phenomena that we share in describing. For example, when a hallucinatory experience is imbued with delusional conviction, the perceptual elements gradually disappear and, ultimately, it becomes difficult to determine whether they existed at all, and if so, in what form. Thus, there are clear distinctions between phenomena—true phenomenological gaps (for example, between physically real and imagined events) or phenomenological transitions (for example, from awareness of reality to hallucinations). One of the most important tasks of psychopathology is to capture all these differences, deepen, expand and systematize them; Only under this condition can we achieve success in the analysis of each individual case.

(d) Classification of groups of phenomena

Below we give a consistent description of abnormal mental phenomena - from specific experiences to the experience of space and time, then to awareness of one’s own corporeality, awareness of reality and delusional ideas. Next, we will turn to emotional states, drives, will, etc., up to the individual’s awareness of his “I”, and at the end we will present the phenomena of reflection. The breakdown into paragraphs is determined by the distinctive properties and visual characteristics of the corresponding phenomena; it does not follow any predetermined pattern, since at present our phenomenological data cannot be classified in any satisfactory way. Being one of the foundations of psychopathology, phenomenology is still very poorly developed. Our attempt at description cannot conceal this defect; nevertheless, we must give at least some kind of - albeit tentative - classification. In frontal conditions, the best classification is the one that captures the natural practical consequences of the facts being discovered. The inevitable defects of such a classification will stimulate our desire to comprehend the totality of phenomena - and not so much through purely logical operations, but through a consistent deepening and expansion of our ability to see phenomena in all their diversity.

The philosophical term “phenomenon” comes from the Greek “φαινόμενον”, which means “appearing”, “rare fact”, “unusual phenomenon”. If you look around, you can see many objects, feel smells, warmth or cold, see beauty and admire it, hear music and be delighted with its melodic sounds. All these objects and phenomena in philosophy are usually called this term. In a word, they are all phenomena. These are philosophical concepts that denote those phenomena that can be comprehended in sensory experience. All of them can become an object of contemplation and scientific observation.

Types of phenomena

Based on the above, these objects and phenomena can be divided into physical and mental. According to the theory of the Austrian philosopher Franz Brentano, the first include sounds, smells, natural landscapes, precipitation, fields, forests, mountains and valleys, trees and shrubs and other objects of the world around us. All of them are given to us in experience, that is, we have the opportunity to see, hear, touch and feel them. But mental phenomena are all our mental activity, that is, all those ideas that arise in our consciousness through sensations or imagination. These include acts of hearing, imagining, seeing, feeling, fantasizing, as well as such as remembering, doubting, judging; emotional experiences: joy, sadness, fear, hope, despair, courage, cowardice, love, anger, hatred, surprise, desire, excitement, admiration, etc.

Cultural phenomenon

The word "culture" has a great variety of meanings. It is the object of knowledge of various sciences: philosophy, sociology, aesthetics, cultural studies, ethnography, political science, psychology, pedagogy, history, art history, etc. In a broad sense, culture is all human activity, which can have a variety of manifestations. It includes all the methods and forms of self-knowledge and self-expression that have been accumulated by society, and even by the individual. In a narrow sense, culture is a series of codes (norms of behavior, rules, stereotypes, customs and rituals, etc.) accepted in a given society and which govern human behavior. In a word, culture is material and On our planet, the first of them have a special meaning only for humans, since they are consecrated by customs, art, religion, in a word - culture. As for spiritual values, not everything is so simple here. We have already witnessed more than once that our younger brothers are capable of showing such feelings as devotion, love, affection, joy, sadness, resentment, gratitude, etc., etc.

Culture and society

In the sociocultural context, the concept of “phenomenon” receives the status of a category. This is a phenomenon that is explored in culture. Today, this is increasingly becoming the object of various scientific works: dissertations, reports, theses and coursework. However, it is extremely difficult for their authors to give an accurate definition of this phenomenon. Everyone interprets it differently. The combination of two concepts such as “society” and “culture” is ubiquitous. Culture is involved or present in almost all spheres of human life without exception. Our vocabulary constantly includes such expressions as “sociocultural space”, “cultural policy”, “personal culture”, etc. Many of these concepts have become so familiar to us that we don’t even notice how often we use them. So how do we understand the phenomenon of culture? This is, first of all, a special way of human life, where the objective and subjective act as a single whole. Through culture, the organization and regulation of human life occurs, which leads to an increase in the level of his activity as a member of society.

Sociocultural in the works of Petirim Sorokin and F. Tenbroek

P. also investigated this phenomenon. According to him, a sociocultural phenomenon is everything that people receive from their environment due to their connection with culture, which, in turn, is the bearer of “superorganic” values. By the latter he understood everything that produces, for example, languages, religion, philosophy, art, ethics, law, manners, habits, etc., etc. In a word, according to Sorokin, “socioculturality” is basic category of the social world, which implies the inseparability of personality, culture and society. And the German philosopher F. Tenbroeck called this connection a “seamless connection” of three components: the individual, society and the system of moral and material values, that is, culture.

What can be considered a socio-cultural phenomenon?

Let's first list those phenomena that fall under the definition. This is a whole set of concepts that affect an individual living in a society of his own kind. Of course, this is not a complete list, but here are some of them:

And this is a list of sociocultural phenomena. It is more extensive. These phenomena are cultural and social phenomena combined into one whole. Here they are:

• education;
• science;
• policy;
• tourism;
• spirituality;
• physicality;
• upbringing;
• family;
• fashion;
• brand;
• religion;
• myth, legend;
• trust;
• happiness;
• grief;
• legal validity;
• motherhood;
• tolerance;
• kitsch, etc.

This list can be continued indefinitely.

Sociocultural phenomenon of development

In our world, nothing is permanent or stands still. All phenomena are either improved or destroyed, moving towards their final death. Improvement is a sociocultural phenomenon of development. It is a process aimed at making a positive change in both material and spiritual objects with one single goal - to become better. From a philosophy course we know that the ability to change is a universal property of both matter and consciousness. This is the principle of existence common to all (nature, knowledge and society).

Personality as a psychological phenomenon

A possessing being, that is, a living person, is a person. It has a very complex structure, which is an integral systemic formation, a set of actions, relationships, significant, from the point of view of society, mental properties of the individual, which were formed as a result of ontogenesis. They define his actions and deeds as the behavior of a subject of communication and activity who has consciousness. The individual is capable of self-regulation, as well as dynamic functioning in society. At the same time, its properties, relationships and actions interact harmoniously with each other. Surely everyone is familiar with such a personality assessment as “core”. This property is endowed with those individuals who have a strong character. However, in psychology, the “core” formation of a personality is explained differently - this is his self-esteem. It is built on the basis of the individual’s attitude towards himself. It is also influenced by how a person evaluates other people. In the traditional understanding, a personality is an individual who acts as a subject of public (social) relations and spiritual activity. This structure also includes the physical and physiological characteristics of the human body, as well as its psychological characteristics. Thus, in addition to social and sociocultural phenomena, there is a psychological phenomenon. These are those phenomena that relate to an individual and his inner world: these are feelings, emotions, experiences, etc. Thus, a psychological phenomenon can be love, hatred, aggression, sympathy, manipulation, etc.

Conclusion

Regardless of what category they belong to, phenomena are everything that can become an object of observation for the purpose of knowledge.