Age and gender differences in breathing types. Age-related features of the respiratory system

Karaganda State Medical University

Department of Histology

Age characteristics respiratory system in newborns and children

Completed: art. gr. 3-072 OMF

Yakupova A.A.

Karaganda 2014

Introduction

In each cell, processes are carried out during which energy is released that is used for various types vital activity of the body. Contractions of muscle fibers, conduction of nerve impulses by neurons, secretion of secretions by glandular cells, processes of cell division - all these and many other vital functions of cells are accomplished thanks to the energy that is released during processes called tissue respiration.

During respiration, cells absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide. This external manifestations complex processes that occur in cells during respiration. How is a constant supply of oxygen to the cells and removal of carbon dioxide, which inhibits their activity, ensured? This occurs during the process of external respiration.

Oxygen from the external environment enters the lungs. There, as is already known, the transformation takes place venous blood into the arterial Arterial blood, flowing through the capillaries of the systemic circulation, releases oxygen through the tissue fluid to the cells that are washed by it, and carbon dioxide released by the cells enters the blood. The release of carbon dioxide by the blood into the atmospheric air also occurs in the lungs.

Stopping the supply of oxygen to cells at least for a very long time short time leads to their death. That is why the constant supply of this gas from the environment - necessary condition life of the organism. In fact, a person can live without food for several weeks, without water for several days, and without oxygen for only 5-9 minutes.

So, the work of the respiratory system can be divided into two main stages:

The first is the conduction of air through the upper respiratory tract (nose, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi) to the lungs, where gas exchange between air and blood occurs in the alveoli.

The second is gas exchange itself.

The respiratory system of newborn children, like other organs and systems, has a whole series age characteristics. These features, on the one hand, provide the necessary mode of operation of the respiratory system for a newborn, and on the other hand, they determine a predisposition to complications characteristic only of this age.

The purpose of my work is to talk about the structure of the organs of this system and the age-related characteristics associated with its study.

The relevance of the topic is that the respiratory organs, which carry out a constant exchange of gases between the body and environment, are one of the most important life-support systems in human body. Continuous supply of oxygen to the blood, as well as constant selection from the blood of carbon dioxide is the main function of the respiratory system, without which the life of any living organism on Earth is unthinkable...

Various elements of the respiratory system undergo significant changes during ontogenesis. They relate to the respiratory function of blood, the structure chest, relative position organs of the abdominal and thoracic cavities, the structure of the lungs themselves, the fundamental difference in the mechanisms of external respiration in the pre- and postnatal periods of the body’s development.

Features of the structure and development of the respiratory system in the ante- and postnatal periods

The development of the respiratory system begins in the 3rd week of embryonic development. On the ventral wall anterior section I intestine (inside - material of the prechordal plate, middle layer- mesenchyme, outside - visceral layer of splanchnotomes) a blind protrusion is formed. This protrusion grows parallel to the first intestine, then the blind end of this protrusion begins to branch dichotomously. From the material of the prechordal plate are formed: the epithelium of the respiratory part and airways, the epithelium of glands in the walls of the airways; connective tissue elements and smooth muscle cells are formed from the surrounding mesenchyme; from the visceral layers of splanchnotomes - the visceral leaf of the pleura.

By the time a child is born, the morphological structure of the respiratory organs is still imperfect, which is also associated with the functional characteristics of breathing. Their intensive growth and differentiation continue during the first months and years of life. The formation of the respiratory organs ends on average by 7 years, and subsequently only their size increases.

All airways in a child are significantly smaller and have narrower openings than in an adult. The features of their morphological structure in children of the first years of life are:

) thin, delicate, easily wounded dry mucous membrane with insufficient development of glands, with reduced production of secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) and surfactant deficiency;

) rich vascularization of the submucosal layer, represented mainly by loose fiber and containing few elastic and connective tissue elements;

) softness and pliability of the cartilaginous frame of the lower respiratory tract, the absence of elastic tissue in them and in the lungs.

This reduces the barrier function of the mucous membrane, facilitates easier penetration of the infectious agent into the bloodstream, and also creates the preconditions for narrowing of the airways due to rapidly occurring swelling or compression of the pliable respiratory tubes from the outside ( thymus gland, abnormally located vessels, enlarged tracheobronchial lymph nodes).

In children early age the nose and nasopharyngeal space are small, short, flattened due to insufficient development of the facial skeleton. The height of the nasal cavity is about 17.5 mm. The nasal turbinates are relatively thick, the nasal passages are poorly developed. The inferior turbinate touches the floor of the nasal cavity. The general nasal passage remains free, the choanae are low. By 6 months of life, the height of the nasal cavity increases to 22 mm and the middle nasal passage is formed, by 2 years the lower nasal passage is formed, after 2 years - the upper nasal passage. By the age of 10, the nasal cavity increases in length by 1.5 times, and by the age of 20 - by 2 times, compared to a newborn. Of the paranasal sinuses, a newborn has only the maxillary sinus, which is poorly developed. The remaining sinuses begin to form after birth. The frontal sinus appears in the 2nd year of life, the sphenoid sinus - by 3 years, the cells of the ethmoid bone - by 3-6 years. By 8-9 years maxillary sinus occupies almost the entire body of the bone. By the age of 5 years, the frontal sinus is the size of a pea. The size of the sphenoid sinus in a child 6-8 years old reaches 2-3 mm. The sinuses of the ethmoid bone are tightly adjacent to each other at the age of 7; by the age of 14, their structure is similar to the lattice cells of an adult.

In young children, the pharynx is relatively wide; the palatine tonsils are clearly visible at birth, but do not protrude due to well-developed arches. Their crypts and vessels are poorly developed, which to some extent explains rare diseases sore throat in the first year of life. By the end of the first year lymphoid tissue tonsils, including the nasopharyngeal (adenoids), often hyperplasia, especially in children with diathesis.

Their barrier function at this age is low, like that of lymph nodes. The overgrown lymphoid tissue is populated by viruses and microbes, and foci of infection are formed - adenoiditis and chronic tonsillitis. In this case, frequent sore throats, acute respiratory viral infections are observed, nasal breathing is often disrupted, changes facial skeleton and the “adenoid face” is formed.

Between the throat and inner ear In humans, there is a so-called auditory (Eustachian) tube, the main significance of which is to maintain constant pressure in the inner ear. In babies in the first months of life, the Eustachian tube is distinguished by the fact that it has a fairly wide lumen and a relatively short length. This creates the preconditions for a more rapid spread of the inflammatory process from the nasal and/or oropharynx into the ear cavity. That is why otitis media occurs more often in young children; in preschoolers and schoolchildren, the likelihood of their occurrence is less.

Another important and interesting feature of the structure of the respiratory organs in infants is that they do not have paranasal sinuses (they begin to form only by the age of 3), so young children never have sinusitis or sinusitis.

The larynx in a newborn is short, wide, funnel-shaped, located higher than in an adult (at the level of the II-IV vertebrae). In children in the first months of life, the larynx is often funnel-shaped; at older ages, cylindrical and conical shapes predominate. The plates of the thyroid cartilage are located at an obtuse angle to each other. The laryngeal protrusion is absent. Due to the high position of the larynx in newborns and infants, the epiglottis is located slightly above the tongue of the root, so when swallowing food bolus(fluid) goes around the epiglottis on either side of it. As a result, the child can breathe and swallow (drink) at the same time, which has important during the act of sucking.

The entrance to the larynx in a newborn is relatively wider than in an adult.

The vestibule is short, so the glottis is high. It has a length of 6.5 mm (3 times shorter than that of an adult). The glottis increases noticeably in the first three years of a child's life, and then during puberty. Muscles of the larynx in a newborn and in childhood poorly developed. The larynx grows rapidly during the first four years of a child's life. During puberty (after 10-12 years), active growth begins again, which continues until 25 years in men and up to 22-23 years in women. Along with the growth of the larynx in childhood, it gradually descends, the distance between its upper edge and hyoid bone increases. By the age of 7, the lower edge of the larynx is at the level of the upper edge of the VI cervical vertebra. The larynx occupies the position characteristic of an adult after 17-20 years.

Sex differences in the larynx are not observed at an early age. Subsequently, the growth of the larynx in boys is slightly faster than in girls. After 6-7 years, the larynx in boys is larger than in girls of the same age. At the age of 10-12 years, the protrusion of the larynx becomes noticeable in boys.

The cartilage of the larynx, thin in a newborn, becomes thicker with age, but retains its flexibility for a long time. In the elderly and old age In the cartilage of the larynx, in addition to the epiglottis, calcium salts are deposited. The cartilage ossifies, becomes brittle and brittle.

The trachea and main bronchi of a newborn are short. The length of the trachea is 3.2-4.5 cm, the width of the lumen in the middle part is about 0.8 cm. The membranous wall of the trachea is relatively wide, the tracheal cartilages are poorly developed, thin, and soft.

After birth, the trachea grows rapidly during the first 6 months, then its growth slows down and accelerates again during puberty and adolescence (12-22 years). By the age of 3-4 years of a child’s life, the width of the tracheal lumen increases by 2 times. The trachea in a child 10-12 years old is twice as long as in a newborn, and by the age of 20-25 its length triples.

The mucous membrane of the tracheal wall in a newborn is thin and tender; glands are poorly developed. In a child 1-2 years old, the upper edge of the trachea is located at the level of the IV-V cervical vertebrae, in 5-6 years old - anterior to the V-VI vertebrae, and in adolescence- at the level of the V cervical vertebra. By the age of 7 years, the tracheal bifurcation is located anterior to the IV-V thoracic vertebrae, and after 7 years it is gradually established at the level of the V thoracic vertebra, as in an adult.

By the time of birth, the bronchial tree is formed. In the 1st year of life, its intensive growth is observed (the size of the lobar bronchi increases by 2 times, and the main bronchi by 1.5 times). During puberty, the growth of the bronchial tree increases again. The size of all its parts (bronchi) by the age of 20 increases 3.5-4 times (compared to the bronchial tree of a newborn). In people 40-45 years old, the bronchial tree has largest dimensions. Age-related involution of the bronchi begins after 50 years. In old and senile age, the length and diameters of the lumen of many segmental bronchi decrease slightly, and sometimes distinct protrusions of their walls appear. As follows from the above, the main functional feature of the bronchial tree of a small child is the insufficient performance of the drainage and cleansing function.

The newborn's lungs are not well developed and have an irregular cone shape; the upper lobes are relatively small in size. The average lobe of the right lung is equal in size upper lobe, and the lower one is relatively large. The weight of both lungs in a newborn is 57 g (from 39 to 70 g), volume - 67 cm3. The lung density of a breathing child is 0.490. A child is born with lungs whose alveoli are almost completely filled with amniotic fluid ( amniotic fluid). This liquid is sterile and during the first two hours of life is gradually released from the respiratory tract, due to which the airiness of the lung tissue increases. This is also facilitated by the fact that during the first hours of life, a newborn baby usually screams for a long time, taking deep breaths. But, nevertheless, the development of lung tissue continues throughout the entire period of early childhood.

By the time of birth, the number of lobes and segments basically corresponds to the number of these formations in adults. Before birth, the alveoli of the lungs remain in a collapsed state, lined with cubic or low-prismatic epithelium (i.e., the wall is thick), filled tissue fluid mixed with amniotic fluid. With the first breath or cry of a child after birth, the alveoli straighten, fill with air, the wall of the alveoli stretches - the epithelium becomes flat. In a stillborn child, the alveoli remain in a collapsed state; under a microscope, the epithelium of the pulmonary alveoli is cubic or low-prismatic (if a piece of the lungs is thrown into water, they drown).
Further development of the respiratory system is due to an increase in the number and volume of alveoli and lengthening of the airways. By the age of 8, the volume of the lungs increases by 8 times compared to a newborn, by 12 years - by 10 times. From the age of 12, the lungs are close in external and internal structure to those of adults, but the slow development of the respiratory system continues until the age of 20-24. In the period from 25 to 40 years, the structure of the pulmonary acini remains virtually unchanged. After 40 years, gradual aging of lung tissue begins. The pulmonary alveoli become larger, and some of the interalveolar septa disappear. In the process of growth and development of the lungs after birth, their volume increases: during the 1st year - 4 times, by 8 years - 8 times, by 12 years - 10 times, by 20 years - 20 times (compared to lung volume of a newborn). The fetal lungs are not an organ of external respiration, but they are not collapsed. The alveoli and bronchi are filled with fluid, which is secreted mainly by type II alveolocytes. Mixing of pulmonary and amniotic fluids does not occur, since the narrow glottis is closed. The presence of fluid in the lung contributes to its development, since it is in an expanded state, although not to the same extent as in postnatal period. The inner surface of the alveoli begins to become covered with surfactant mainly after 6 months of intrauterine development.

External respiration of the fetus, i.e. gas exchange between the body’s blood and the environment, is carried out with the help of the placenta, to which mixed blood from the umbilical arteries enters abdominal aorta. In the placenta, gas exchange takes place between the blood of the fetus and the blood of the mother: O2 comes from the mother’s blood to the fetus’s blood, and CO2 from the fetus’s blood to the mother’s blood, i.e. the placenta is the fetus’s entire external respiratory organ intrauterine period development. In the placenta, there is no equalization of O2 and CO2 voltages, as during pulmonary respiration, which is explained by the large thickness of the placental membrane, 5-10 times greater than the thickness of the pulmonary membrane.

trachea respiratory organ bronchi

Conclusion

A person can do without food for several weeks, without water for several days, without air for only a few minutes. Nutrients are stored in the body, like water, the reserve fresh air limited by lung capacity<#"justify">List of used literature

1.Histology, embryology, cytology: textbook / Yu. I. Afanasyev, N. A. Yurina, E. F. Kotovsky, etc. - 6th ed., revised. and additional - 2012.

2.Histology, embryology, cytology: textbook for universities / Ed. E.G. Ulumbekova, Yu.A. Chelysheva - 3rd ed., - 2009.

.Samusev R.P. Atlas of cytology, histology and embryology. : training manual for students of higher medical educational institutions / R.P. Samusev, G.I. Pupysheva, A.V. Smirnov. Ed. R.P. Samuseva. - M.: Publishing house. House "ONIX21vek": Publishing house. "Peace and Education", 2004.

.Histology. Ed. E.G. Ulumbekova. 2nd ed. - M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2001. Kuznetsov S.L. Lectures on histology, cytology and embryology. - M.: MIA, 2004.

.Histology. Textbook for medical students. Universities. Ed. Yu.I. Afanasyeva, N.A. Yurina. 5th ed. - M.: Medicine, 1999.

.Histology, cytology and embryology. Atlas: textbook. O.V. Volkova, Yu.K. Eletsky, T.K. Dubova et al. Ed. O.V. Volkova. - M.: Medicine, 1996.

During the seventy years that elapse on average between birth and death, a person experiences many stages of development. Both boys and girls follow a clear developmental pattern as they grow in various ways breathing. For example, during primary and secondary school years, between the ages of seven and fourteen, boys have more developed lungs than girls of the same age. It is typical that girls aged 9-11 years have a tidal lung volume that is 10 percent less than boys of the same age. age group. By age twelve, this difference reaches 20 percent. It exists until the age of fourteen.

Doctors explain this difference in the physical development of boys and girls primarily by the influence of sex hormones secreted by the endocrine glands, especially testosterone, the male sex hormone that plays a major role in muscle development and, accordingly, an increase in the tidal volume of the lungs in boys.

Does your area of ​​residence affect your lung capacity?

Studies were conducted to compare the lung activity of children of the same age group living in different areas of Japan. The young participants in the study were recruited from two different areas - one group of children was from Tokyo, and the other from central Japan, from Nagano Prefecture. The group from Tokyo represented students from large cities, and the group from Nagano represented students from rural areas.

As a result of a study of primary school children, boys aged from seven to eleven years old, it turned out that the average tidal volume of residents of rural areas is greater than that of children raised in urban areas. But if we talk about boys twelve years old and older, the situation is in favor of the young representatives from Tokyo: their tidal volume significantly exceeds the tidal volume of their peers from rural areas. As for girls, their development of tidal volume of the lungs has the same trends in the same age groups.

This study shows that a more developed respiratory system in boys from rural areas under the age of eleven is determined by a better overall physical development, which, in turn, is explained by the fact that from the age of six or even earlier, these children must engage in heavy physical labor related to work on farms. A better functioning respiratory system of urban boys aged 12-14 years is determined by the fact that in urban areas boys reach puberty earlier than in rural areas.

The same explanation is offered for the fact that when studying the respiratory functions of young men aged 14-17 from the same areas, no significant differences were found. That is, in both urban and rural areas, students reach puberty by this age.

How does lung volume change with age?

The studies described above, as well as similar ones in which people who have already reached maturity took part, show that the total tidal volume of a person’s lungs constantly increases until 18-20 years of age. However, in subsequent years this volume gradually decreases. Taking the average value at the age of 18-20 years as 100 percent, the change in vital capacity per square meter of body surface can be shown as follows:

• 95.9 at the age of 20-23 years,
• 90.17 at the age of 32-34 years,
• 86.07 at the age of 41-43 years,
• 81.86 at the age of 51-53 years,
• 76.36 at the age of 56-60 years,
• 67.38 at the age of 61-65 years,
• 60.48 at age 71-75
• 56.24 at the age of 75-80 years.

Similarly, taking the average value at age 18-20 years as 100 percent, the change in maximum ventilation per square meter of body surface can be shown as follows:

• 91.64 at the age of 20-23 years,
• 86.39 at the age of 32-34 years,
• 82.52 at the age of 41-43 years,
• 73.91 at the age of 51-53 years,
• 66.79 at the age of 56-60 years,
• 63.67 at the age of 61-65 years,
• 49.44 at age 71-75
• 41.7 at the age of 75-80 years.

Based on these data, we can say that the human respiratory system functions best in adolescence, between 18 and 20 years.

“Respiratory aging” and how to prevent it

The results of the studies mentioned above indicate that a person aged sixty years and older has a worse respiratory system than a child of nine years. Signs of “respiratory aging” in men appear at the age of approximately 50 years. In women they appear ten years earlier than in men. The occurrence of such symptoms sometimes coincides with signs of aging muscle tissue. Therefore, it is very important for middle-aged people to master techniques that maintain a stable tidal volume for as long as possible.

The most effective way to prevent the acceleration of the aging process is to learn how to maintain rhythm and regularity. respiratory cycle, and in this way he will be able to rejuvenate himself. Exercises of this kind are more effective for rejuvenation than other outdoor physical exercises, such as jogging or various types of athletics which many people do today, trying to get rid of excess weight.

breathing age hygienic air

Fetal breathing. Respiratory movements in the fetus occur long before birth. The stimulus for their occurrence is a decrease in the oxygen content in the blood of the fetus.

The breathing movements of the fetus consist of a slight expansion of the chest, which is followed by a longer decline, and then an even longer pause. When inhaling, the lungs do not expand, but only a slight negative pressure arises in the pleural fissure, which is absent at the moment the chest collapses. The significance of the fetal breathing movements is that they help increase the speed of blood movement through the vessels and its flow to the heart. And this leads to improved blood supply to the fetus and oxygen supply to tissues. In addition, fetal breathing movements are considered a form of lung function training.

Breathing of a newborn. The occurrence of the first breath of a newborn is due to a number of reasons. After ligation of the umbilical cord in a newborn, the placental exchange of gases between the blood of the fetus and mother stops. This leads to an increase in carbon dioxide in the blood, which irritates cells respiratory center And causing rhythmic breathing.

The reason for the first breath of a newborn is a change in the conditions of his existence. Action various factors external environment on all receptors of the body surface becomes the irritant that reflexively contributes to the occurrence of inhalation. A particularly powerful factor is irritation of skin receptors.

A newborn's first breath is especially difficult. When it is carried out, the elasticity of the lung tissue is overcome, which is increased due to the surface tension forces of the walls of the collapsed alveoli and bronchi. After the first 1 - 3 respiratory movements occur, the lungs are fully expanded and evenly filled with air.

The chest grows faster than the lungs, so negative pressure arises in the pleural cavity, creating conditions for constant stretching of the lungs. Creating negative pressure in the pleural cavity and maintaining it at a constant level also depends on the properties of the pleural tissue. It has high absorption capacity. Therefore, gas introduced into the pleural cavity and reducing the negative pressure in it is quickly absorbed, and the negative pressure in it is restored again.

The mechanism of breathing in a newborn. The child's breathing patterns are related to the structure and development of his chest. In a newborn, the chest has a pyramidal shape; by the age of 3 it becomes cone-shaped, and by the age of 12 it becomes almost the same as that of an adult. Newborns have an elastic diaphragm, its tendon part occupies a small area, and the muscle part occupies a large area. As it develops, the muscular part of the diaphragm increases even more. It begins to atrophy from the age of 60, and in its place the tendon part increases. Since infants mainly breathe diaphragmatically, during inhalation the resistance of the internal organs located in the abdominal cavity. In addition, when breathing, you have to overcome the elasticity of the lung tissue, which is still high in newborns and decreases with age. We also have to overcome bronchial resistance, which is much greater in children than in adults. Therefore, the work spent on breathing is much greater in children compared to adults.

Changes in breathing type with age. Diaphragmatic breathing persists until the second half of the first year of life. As the child grows, the chest moves down and the ribs take on an oblique position. In this case, infants experience mixed breathing (thoracic-abdominal), and stronger mobility of the chest is observed in its lower parts. Due to the development of the shoulder girdle (3 - 7 years), chest breathing begins to predominate. From 8 to 10 years of age, gender differences in the type of breathing arise: in boys, a predominantly diaphragmatic type of breathing is established, and in girls, a thoracic type of breathing is established.

Changes in the rhythm and frequency of breathing with age. In newborns and infants, breathing is arrhythmic. Arrhythmicity is expressed in the fact that deep breathing is replaced by shallow breathing, the pauses between inhalations and exhalations are uneven. The duration of inhalation and exhalation in children is shorter than in adults: inhalation is 0.5 - 0.6 s (in adults - 0.98 - 2.82 s), and exhalation - 0.7 - 1 s (in adults - from 1.62 to 5.75 s). From the moment of birth, the same relationship between inhalation and exhalation is established as in adults: inhalation is shorter than exhalation.

The frequency of respiratory movements in children decreases with age. In the fetus it ranges from 46 to 64 per minute. Up to 8 years of age, the respiratory rate (RR) is higher in boys than in girls. By the time of puberty, the respiratory rate in girls becomes greater, and this ratio remains throughout life. By the age of 14 - 15 years, the respiratory rate approaches the value of an adult.

The respiratory rate in children is much higher than in adults and changes under the influence of various influences. It increases with mental arousal, slight physical exercise, and a slight increase in body and environmental temperature.

Changes in respiratory and minute volumes lungs, their vital capacity. In a newborn baby, the lungs are inelastic and relatively large. During inhalation, their volume increases slightly, by only 10 - 15 mm. Providing the child's body with oxygen occurs by increasing the breathing rate. Tidal volume of the lungs increases with age along with a decrease in respiratory rate.

With age absolute value MOR increases, but relative MOR (ratio of MOR to body weight) decreases. In newborns and children of the first year of life it is twice as much as in adults. This is due to the fact that in children with the same relative tidal volume breathing rate is several times higher than in adults. In this regard, pulmonary ventilation is greater per 1 kg of body weight in children (in newborns it is 400 ml, at 5 - 6 years of age it is 210, at 7 years old - 160, at 8 - 10 years old - 150, 11 - 13-year-olds - 130 - 145, 14-year-olds - 125, and 15 - 17-year-olds - 110). Thanks to this, the growing organism's greater need for O 2 is ensured.

The value of vital capacity increases with age due to the growth of the chest and lungs. In a 5-6 year old child it is 710-800 ml, in a 14-16 year old child it is 2500-2600 ml. From 18 to 25 years of age, the vital capacity of the lungs is maximum, and after 35 to 40 years of age it decreases. The size of the vital capacity of the lungs varies depending on age, height, type of breathing, gender (girls have 100 - 200 ml less than boys).

In children, during physical work, breathing changes in a unique way. During exercise, the RR increases and the RR remains almost unchanged. Such breathing is uneconomical and cannot ensure long-term performance of work. Pulmonary ventilation in children increases 2-7 times when performing physical work, and almost 20 times during heavy loads (middle-distance running). For girls, when performing maximum work oxygen consumption is less than in boys, especially at 8 - 9 years old and at 16 - 18. All this should be taken into account when engaging in physical labor and sports with children of different ages.

Age-related features of the respiratory system. Children under 8-11 years old have an underdeveloped nasal cavity, swollen mucous membrane and narrowed nasal passages. This makes it difficult to breathe through the nose and therefore children often breathe with their mouths open, which can contribute to colds, inflammation of the pharynx and larynx. In addition, constant mouth breathing can lead to frequent otitis media, bronchitis, dry mouth, and abnormal development hard palate, to disruption of the normal position of the nasal septum, etc.. Colds and infectious diseases of the nasal mucosa almost always contribute to its additional swelling and an even greater reduction in the narrowed nasal passages in children, which further complicates their breathing through the nose. Therefore, colds in children require quick and effective treatment, especially since the infection can enter the cavities of the skull bones, causing corresponding inflammation of the mucous membrane of these cavities and the development of chronic runny nose. From the nasal cavity, air enters through the choanae into the pharynx, where the oral cavity (call), auditory (Eustachian canals) tubes also open, and the larynx and esophagus originate. In children under 10-12 years of age, the pharynx is very short, which leads to the fact that infectious diseases of the upper respiratory tract are often complicated by inflammation of the middle ear, since the infection easily enters there through the short and wide auditory tube. This should be remembered when treating colds in children, as well as when organizing physical education classes, especially at water pools, winter sports, and the like. Around the openings from the mouth, nose, and auditory tubes in the pharynx are nodes designed to protect the body from pathogens that may enter the mouth and pharynx through the air inhaled or through the food or water consumed. These formations are called adenoids or tonsils (tonsils).

From the nasopharynx, air enters the larynx, which consists of cartilage, ligaments and muscles. When swallowing food, the cavity of the larynx on the side of the pharynx is covered with elastic cartilage - the epiglottis, which prevents food from entering the windy path. The vocal cords are also located at the top of the larynx. In general, the larynx in children is shorter than in adults. This organ grows most intensively in the first 3 years of a child’s life, and during puberty. In the latter case, gender differences are formed in the structure of the larynx: in boys it becomes wider (especially at the level of the thyroid cartilage), an Adam's apple appears and the vocal cords become longer, which causes a brittle voice in the final voice and the formation of a lower voice in men.

The trachea departs from the lower edge of the larynx, which further branches into two bronchi, which supply air to the left and right lungs. The mucous membrane of the tract of children (up to 15-16 years old) is very vulnerable to infections due to the fact that it contains fewer mucous glands and is very delicate.

The state of external respiration is characterized by functional and volumetric indicators. Functional indicators include primarily the type of breathing. Children under 3 years old have a diaphragmatic type of breathing. From 3 to 7 years old, all children develop breast type breathing. From the age of 8, gender characteristics of the type of breathing begin to appear: boys gradually develop a belly - diaphragmatic type of breathing, and girls improve their thoracic type of breathing. Consolidation of such differentiation is completed at the age of 14-17 years. It should be noted that the type of breathing may change depending on physical activity. With intense breathing, not only the diaphragm, but also the chest begins to work actively in guys, and in girls, the diaphragm is activated along with the chest.

Second functional indicator respiration is the respiratory rate (the number of inhalations or exhalations per minute), which decreases significantly with age.

The human respiratory organs are very important for the life of the body, as they supply oxygen to tissues and remove carbon dioxide from them. The upper respiratory tract includes the nasal openings that reach the vocal cords, and the lower respiratory tract includes the bronchi, trachea and larynx. At the time of birth of a child, the structure of the respiratory organs is not yet fully developed, which constitutes the characteristics of the respiratory system in infants.

Breathing is a necessary physiological process of constant exchange of gases between the body and external environment. As a result of breathing, oxygen enters the body, which is used by every cell of the body in oxidation reactions and is the basis for the exchange of speech and energy. During these reactions, carbon dioxide is released, the excess of which must be removed from the body all the time. Without access to oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide, life can last only a few minutes. The breathing process includes five stages:

Exchange of gases between the external environment and the lungs (pulmonary ventilation);

Exchange of gases in the lungs between the air of the lungs and the blood of the capillaries that tightly penetrate the alveoli of the lungs (pulmonary respiration)

Transportation of gases by blood (transfer of oxygen from the lungs to tissues, and carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs)

Exchange of gases in tissues;

Use of oxygen by tissues (internal respiration at the level of cell mitochondria).

The first four stages relate to external respiration, and the fifth stage - to interstitial respiration, which occurs at the biochemical level.

The human respiratory system consists of the following organs:

Airways, which include the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi of different diameters;

Lungs, consisting of the smallest air channels (bronchioles), air bubbles - alveoli, tightly braided blood capillaries pulmonary circulation

Bone - muscular system the chest, which provides breathing movements and includes the ribs, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm (the membrane between the chest cavity and the abdominal cavity). The structure and performance of the respiratory system organs change with age, which determines certain breathing patterns of people of different ages.

The airways begin from the nasal cavity, which consists of three passages: upper, middle and lower and is covered with mucous membrane, hairs and penetrated by blood vessels

(capillaries). Among the cells of the mucous membrane of the upper nasal passages are located olfactory receptors, surrounded by the olfactory epithelium. The corresponding nasolacrimal canals open into the lower nasal passage of the right and left halves of the nose. The upper nasal meatus connects with the cavities of the sphenoid and partially ethmoid bones, and the middle nasal meatus connects with the cavities upper jaw (maxillary sinus) and frontal bones. In the nasal cavity, the air inhaled is normalized by temperature (heated or cooled), humidified or dehydrated and partially cleared of dust. The cilia of the mucosal epithelium constantly move quickly (flicker), due to which the mucus from dust particles stuck to it is pushed out at a speed of up to 1 cm per minute and most often towards the pharynx where it is periodically coughed up or swallowed. The inhaled air can also enter the throat through the oral cavity, but in this case it will not be normalized by temperature, humidity and level of dust removal. Thus, mouth breathing will not be physiological and should be avoided.

Children under 8-11 years of age have an underdeveloped nasal cavity, swollen mucous membrane and narrowed nasal passages. This makes it difficult to breathe through the nose and therefore children often breathe with their mouths open, which can contribute to colds, inflammation of the pharynx and larynx. In addition, constant mouth breathing can lead to frequent otitis media, inflammation of the middle ear, bronchitis, dry mouth, abnormal development of the hard palate, disruption of the normal position of the nasal septum, etc. Colds and infectious diseases of the nasal mucosa (rhinitis) almost always contribute to it additional swelling and even greater reduction of the narrowed nasal passages in children further complicates their breathing through the nose. Therefore, colds in children require quick and effective treatment, especially since the infection can enter the air-bearing cavities of the skull bones (in the maxillary cavity of the upper jaw, or in the frontal cavity of the frontal bone), causing corresponding inflammation of the mucous membrane of these cavities and the development of chronic runny nose (for more details, see further).

From the nasal cavity, air enters through the choanae into the pharynx, where the oral cavity (call), auditory (Eustachian canals) tubes also open, and the larynx and esophagus originate. In children under 10-12 years of age, the pharynx is very short, which leads to the fact that infectious diseases of the upper respiratory tract are often complicated by inflammation of the middle ear, since the infection easily enters there through the short and wide auditory tube. This should be remembered when treating colds in children, as well as when organizing physical education classes, especially at water pools, winter sports, and the like.

Around the openings from the mouth, nose and auditory tubes in the pharynx there are lymphoepithelial nodes, designed to protect the body from pathogens that can enter the mouth and pharynx along with the air inhaled or with food or water. These formations are called adenoids or tonsils (tonsils). The tonsils include pharyngeal tubal tonsils, pharynx tonsils (palatine and lingual) and December lymph nodes, which form the lymphoepithelial ring of immune protection.

Among all respiratory diseases, including children from the first days of life, the most common are acute respiratory viral infections(ARVI) group of which, according to A. A. Drobinskoi (2003), includes influenza, parainfluenza, adenovirus, rhinovirus and other diseases of the upper respiratory tract. Children over 3 years of age are most sensitive to influenza pathogens, while in other acute respiratory viral infections they gradually acquire relative immunity. The most common clinical forms of ARVI diseases are rhinitis (inflammation of the nasal mucosa), pharyngitis (general burning of the tonsils of the pharynx), tonsillitis (inflammation of the pharyngeal tonsils), laryngitis (inflammation of the larynx), tracheitis, bronchitis (inflammation of the airways), pneumonia (inflammation of the lungs). Tonsillitis can be complicated in the form of follicular or lacunar tonsillitis and lymphadenitis. When the infection involves the epithelial connective tissues and the vascular system, swelling and congestion of the mucous membrane (respiratory tract catarrh) may occur. Viruses can also spread through the blood throughout the body, affecting the liver, gastrointestinal tract, heart, blood vessels, central nervous system, kidneys and other organs. ARVI diseases are promoted by overcrowding of people, unsatisfactory hygienic condition of premises (including classrooms, gyms), hypothermia of the body (cold), therefore appropriate preventive measures, and during ARVI epidemics, introduce quarantine days, including stopping the work of sports training sections.

Among other dangerous infectious diseases of the respiratory system, measles, whooping cough, diphtheria, tuberculosis should be highlighted, the main reasons for the spread of which are contact with the patient, unsatisfactory hygienic and social conditions.

One of the most common forms of complications of frequent rhinitis in children may be inflammation of the paranasal sinuses, that is, the development of sinusitis or sinusitis. Sinusitis is an inflammation that affects the mucous membrane of the air cavities of the upper jaw. The disease develops as a complication after infectious diseases (measles, flu, sore throat) with their careless treatment, as well as from frequent inflammation of the nasal mucosa (runny nose), which occurs, for example, in children involved in water sports. Inflammation of the maxillary cavity of the upper jaw can spread to the cavity of the frontal bone, leading to inflammation frontal sinus- frontitis. With this disease, children experience headaches, lacrimation, purulent discharge from the nose. Sinusitis and frontal sinusitis are dangerous transitions to chronic forms and therefore require careful and timely treatment.

From the nasopharynx, air enters the larynx, which consists of cartilage, ligaments and muscles. When swallowing food, the cavity of the larynx on the side of the pharynx is covered with elastic cartilage - the epiglottis, which prevents food from entering the airways.

The vocal cords are also located at the top of the larynx.

In general, the larynx in children is shorter than in adults. This organ grows most intensively in the first 3 years of a child’s life, and during puberty. In the latter case, gender differences are formed in the structure of the larynx: in boys it becomes wider (especially at the level of the thyroid cartilage), an Adam's apple appears and the vocal cords become longer, which causes a break in the voice with the eventual formation of a lower voice in men.

The trachea departs from the lower edge of the larynx, which further branches into two bronchi, which supply air to the left and right lungs. The mucous membrane of the airways of children (up to 15-16 years old) is very vulnerable to infections due to the fact that it contains fewer mucous glands and is very delicate.

The main gas exchange organ of the respiratory system is the lungs. With age, the structure of the lungs changes significantly: the length of the airways increases, and at the age of 8-10 years, the number of pulmonary vesicles - alveoli, which are the final part respiratory tract. The alveolar wall has one layer epithelial cells(Alveocytes), 2-3 millimicrons (µm) thick and surrounded by a dense retina of capillaries. Through such a small membrane, gases are exchanged: oxygen passes from the air into the blood, and carbon dioxide and water pass in the opposite direction. In adults, there are up to 350 million alveoli in the lungs, with a total surface area of ​​up to 150 m ~.

Every lung is covered serosa(pleura), which consists of two layers, one of which grows to inner surface chest, the second - to the lung tissue. A small cavity is formed between the leaves, filled with serous fluid (1-2 ml), which helps reduce friction when the lungs slide during breathing. The lungs of children under 8-10 years of age grow due to an increase in the number of alveoli, and after 8 years of age due to an increase in the volume of each alveoli, which over the entire period of development can increase 20 or more times relative to the volume of a newborn. Increases lung volume physical training, especially running and swimming, and this process can last up to 28-30 years.

The state of external respiration is characterized by functional and volumetric indicators.

Functional indicators include primarily the type of breathing. Children under 3 years old have a diaphragmatic type of breathing. From 3 to 7 years old, all children develop a thoracic breathing pattern. From the age of 8, gender characteristics of the type of breathing begin to appear: boys gradually develop a belly - diaphragmatic type of breathing, and girls improve their thoracic type of breathing. Consolidation of such differentiation is completed at the age of 14-17 years. It should be noted that the type of breathing may change depending on physical activity. With intense breathing, not only the diaphragm, but also the chest begins to work actively in guys, and in girls, the diaphragm is activated along with the chest.

The second functional indicator of respiration is the respiratory rate (the number of inhalations or exhalations per minute), which decreases significantly with age (Table 15).

Table 15

Age-related dynamics of the main indicators of respiratory condition (S. I. Galperin, 1965; V. I. Bobritskaya, 2004)

With age, all volumetric respiratory parameters increase significantly. In table Figure 15 shows the age-related dynamics of changes in the main volumetric parameters of breathing in children depending on gender.

Respiration volumes also depend on body length, the state of chest development and physical fitness. For example, in rowers and runners, vital capacity can reach 5500-8000 ml, and minute respiratory volume can reach 9000-12000 ml.

Breathing is regulated primarily by the respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata. Central nervous system provides automatic alternation of inhalation and exhalation due to the supply of periodic impulses, through descending paths the spinal cord to the external intercostal muscles and the muscles of the thoracic diaphragm, which lift the chest (lower the diaphragm), which determines the act of inhaling air. In a calm state, exhalation occurs by relaxing the internal intercostal muscles and the muscles of the diaphragm and lowering the chest (leveling the diaphragm) under its own weight. When you exhale deeply, the internal intercostal muscles tighten and the diaphragm rises.

The activity of the respiratory center is regulated reflexively or humorally. Reflexes are activated from receptors located in the lungs (mechanoreceptors - stretching of lung tissue), as well as from chemoreceptors (sensitive to the content of oxygen or carbon dioxide in human blood) and from pressoreceptors (sensitive to blood pressure in the veins). There are also chains conditionally reflex regulation breathing (for example, from pre-race excitement in athletes), and conscious regulation from centers in the cerebral cortex.

According to A.G. Khripkov et al. (1990) Children of the first years of life have a higher resistance to oxygen deficiency (hypoxia) than older children. The formation of the functional maturity of the respiratory center continues during the first 11-12 years and at the age of 14-15 years it becomes adequate for such regulation in adults. When the bark matures cerebral hemispheres(15-16 years old) the ability to consciously change breathing parameters is improved: hold your breath, do maximum ventilation etc.

During puberty, some children may experience a temporary disturbance in the regulation of breathing (resistance to oxygen deficiency decreases, respiratory rate increases, etc.), which should be taken into account when organizing physical education classes.

Sports training significantly increases breathing parameters. In trained adults, pulmonary gas exchange increases with physical activity occurs mainly due to the depth of breathing, while in children, especially of primary school age, due to an increase in breathing frequency, which is less effective.

Children also reach maximum oxygen levels more quickly, but this does not last long, reducing endurance at work.

It is very important from early childhood to teach children to breathe correctly when walking, running, swimming, etc. This is facilitated by normal posture during all types of work, breathing through the nose, as well as special breathing exercises. With the correct breathing pattern, the duration of exhalation should be 2 times longer than the duration of inhalation.

In the process of physical education, especially for children of preschool and primary school age (4-9 years old), attention should be paid to special attention cultivating proper breathing through the nose, both in a state of relative rest and during labor activity or playing sports. Breathing exercises, as well as swimming, rowing, skating, and skiing especially help improve breathing.

Breathing exercises are best done in full breathing mode (deep breathing with a combination of thoracic and abdominal rear breathing). It is recommended to do such exercises 2-3 times a day, 1-2 hours after meals. In this case, you should stand or sit straight and relaxed. You need to take a quick (2-3 sec) deep breath and slow (15-30 sec) exhale with full voltage diaphragm and “compression” of the chest. At the end of exhalation, it is advisable to hold your breath for 5-10 seconds, and then forcefully inhale again. There can be 2-4 such breaths per minute. The duration of one session of breathing exercises should be 5-7 minutes.

Breathing exercises have great health benefits. Taking a deep breath reduces the pressure in the chest cavity (by lowering the diaphragm). This leads to an increase in venous blood flow to the right atrium, which facilitates the work of the heart. The diaphragm, descending towards the abdomen, massages the liver and other abdominal organs, promotes the removal of metabolic products from them, and from the liver - venous stagnation of blood and bile.

During deep exhalation, the diaphragm rises, which promotes the outflow of blood from lower parts body, from the pelvic and abdominal organs. There is also a light massage of the heart and improved blood supply to the myocardium. The indicated effects of breathing exercises in the best possible way produce stereotypes of correct breathing, and also contribute to general health, increased protective forces, optimization of the functioning of internal organs.

Breathing is a process of constant exchange of gases between the body and the environment, necessary for life. Breathing ensures a constant supply of oxygen to the body, which is necessary for the implementation of oxidative processes, which are the main source of energy. Without access to oxygen, life can last for several minutes. At oxidative processes carbon dioxide is formed, which must be removed from the body. Blood is the carrier of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

The act of breathing consists of three processes:

• 1. External or pulmonary respiration - the exchange of gases between the body and the environment.
• 2. Internal or tissue respiration occurring in cells.
• 3. Transport of gases by blood, i.e. transfer of oxygen from the blood to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

The human respiratory system is divided into:

• - Airways include the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi.
• -Respiratory part or lungs - consists of a parenchymal formation, which is divided into alveolar vesicles in which gas exchange occurs.

All parts of the respiratory system undergo significant structural transformations with age, which determines the characteristics of breathing child's body at different stages of development.

The airways and respiratory part begin with the nasal cavity. Air enters through the nostrils nasal cavity It is divided into two halves, and behind, with the help of the choanae, it communicates with the nasopharynx. The walls of the nasal cavity are formed by bones and cartilage, lined with mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity is abundantly supplied with blood vessels and covered with stratified ciliated epithelium.

Passing through the nasal cavity, the air is warmed, moistened and purified. The nasal cavity contains the olfactory bulbs, through which a person perceives smell.

By the time of birth, the child’s nasal cavity is underdeveloped; it is distinguished by narrow nasal openings and the virtual absence of paranasal sinuses, the final formation of which occurs in adolescence. The volume of the nasal cavity increases 2.5 times with age. The structural features of the nasal cavity of young children make nasal breathing difficult; children often breathe with their mouths open, which leads to susceptibility colds. Adenoids may be a factor in this. A “stuffy” nose affects speech - nasal sound. Mouth breathing causes oxygen starvation, congestion in the chest and cranium, deformation of the chest, decreased hearing, frequent otitis media, bronchitis, abnormal (high) development of the hard palate, disruption of the nasal septum and the shape of the lower jaw. Associated with the nasal cavity air sinuses neighboring bones - paranasal sinuses. The paranasal sinuses can develop inflammatory processes: sinusitis - inflammation of the maxillary, maxillary paranasal sinus; Frontal sinusitis is inflammation of the frontal sinus.

From the nasal cavity, air enters the nasopharynx, and then into the oral and laryngeal parts of the pharynx.

The child's pharynx is shorter and wider, as well as low position auditory tube. The structural features of the nasopharynx lead to the fact that diseases of the upper respiratory tract in children are often complicated by inflammation of the middle ear. Disease of the tonsil glands located in the pharynx also seriously affects the health of children. Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils. Adenoids are one of the types of diseases of the tonsil glands - an enlargement of the third tonsil.

The next link in the airways is the larynx. The larynx is located on the front surface of the neck, at the level of 4-6 cervical vertebrae, on both sides there are lobes thyroid gland, and behind - the pharynx. The larynx is shaped like a funnel. Its skeleton is formed by paired and unpaired cartilage, connected by joints, ligaments and muscles. Unpaired cartilages - thyroid, epiglottis, cricoid. Paired cartilages - corniculate, arytenoid. The epiglottis covers the entrance to the larynx during swallowing. The inside of the larynx is covered with a mucous membrane with ciliated epithelium. The larynx serves to conduct air and at the same time is an organ of sound production, in which two vocal cords participate, these are mucous folds consisting of elastic connective fibers. The ligaments are stretched between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages, and limit the glottis.

In children, the larynx is shorter, narrower and higher than in adults. The larynx grows most intensively in the 1-3 years of life and during puberty - in boys an Adam's apple is formed, the vocal cords lengthen, the larynx becomes wider and longer than in girls, and the voice breaks. The mucous membrane of the airways is more abundantly supplied with blood vessels, is tender and vulnerable, and contains fewer mucous glands that protect it from damage.

The trachea extends from the lower edge of the larynx. The trachea is about 12 cm long (its length increases in accordance with the growth of the body, maximum accelerated growth at 14-16 years), consists of cartilaginous half-rings. The posterior wall of the trachea is soft and adjacent to the esophagus. The inside is lined with a mucous membrane containing glands that secrete mucus. From the neck area, the trachea passes into the chest cavity and is divided into two bronchi, wider and shorter on the left, and narrower and longer on the right. The bronchi enter the lungs and there they divide into bronchi of smaller diameter - bronchioles, which are divided into even smaller ones, forming the bronchial tree, which in turn forms the hilum of the lungs. IN chest cavity There are two lungs, they have the shape of a cone. On the side of each lung facing the heart, there are depressions - the gates of the lung, through which the bronchus, lung nerve, blood and lymphatic vessels pass. The bronchus branches in each lung. The bronchi, like the trachea, contain cartilage in their walls. The smallest branches of the bronchi are bronchioles; they do not have cartilage, but are equipped with muscle fibers and are capable of narrowing.

The lungs are located in the chest. Each lung is covered with a serous membrane - the pleura. The pleura consists of two sheets: the parietal sheet is adjacent to the chest, the intranosal sheet is fused with the lung. Between the two sheets there is a space - the pleural cavity, filled with serous fluid, which facilitates the sliding of the pleural sheets during respiratory movements. There is no air in the pleural cavity and the pressure there is negative. Pleural cavity does not communicate with each other.

The right lung consists of three, and the left of two lobes. Each section of the lung consists of segments: in the right - 11 segments, in the left - 10 segments. Each segment in turn consists of many pulmonary lobes. The structural unit is the acenus - end part bronchioles with alveolar vesicles. The bronchioles turn into expansion - alveolar ducts, on the walls of which there are protrusions - alveoli. which are the final part of the respiratory tract. The walls of the pulmonary vesicles consist of a single layer squamous epithelium and capillaries are adjacent to them. Gas exchange occurs through the walls of the alveoli and capillaries: oxygen enters the blood from the alveoli, and carbon dioxide returns back. There are up to 350 million alveoli in the lungs, and their surface reaches 150 m2. The large surface area of ​​the alveoli promotes better gas exchange.

In children, the lungs grow due to an increase in the volume of the alveoli (in newborns, the diameter of the alveoli is 0.07 mm, in adults it reaches 0.2 mm). Enhanced growth lungs occurs up to three years of age. The number of alveoli by the age of 8 reaches the number in an adult. At the age of 3 to 7 years, the growth rate of the lungs is reduced. The alveoli grow especially vigorously after the age of 12; by this age the volume of the lungs increases 10 times compared to a newborn, and by the end of puberty 20 times. Accordingly, gas exchange in the lungs changes, an increase in the total surface of the alveoli leads to an increase in the diffusion capabilities of the lungs.

The exchange of gases between atmospheric air and the air in the alveoli occurs due to the rhythmic alternation of the acts of inhalation and exhalation.

There is no muscle tissue in the lungs, they actively contract, they cannot. The respiratory muscles play an active role in the act of inhalation and exhalation. When they are paralyzed, breathing becomes impossible, although the respiratory organs are not affected.

Inhalation is carried out as follows: under the influence of nerve impulses from the chest and diaphragm, the intercostal muscles lift the ribs and move them slightly to the side, thereby increasing the volume of the chest. When the diaphragm contracts, its dome flattens, which also leads to an increase in the volume of the chest. When breathing deeply, other muscles of the chest and neck are also involved. The lungs are located in a hermetically sealed chest and move passively behind its moving walls, since they are attached to the chest with the help of the pleura. This is facilitated by negative pressure in the chest. When you inhale, the lungs stretch, the pressure in them drops and becomes below atmospheric pressure, and outside air rushes into the lungs. When you exhale, the muscles relax, the ribs drop, the volume of the chest decreases, the lungs contract, the pressure in them increases and air rushes out. The depth of inspiration depends on the expansion of the chest during inhalation. The condition of the lung tissue is very important for the act of breathing. which has elasticity i.e. Lung tissue has a certain resistance to stretching.

As the musculoskeletal apparatus of the respiratory system matures, and the characteristics of its development in boys and girls determine age and gender differences in breathing types. In young children, the ribs have a slight bend and occupy almost horizontal position. The upper ribs and shoulder girdle are located high, the intercostal muscles are weak. In this regard, newborns breathe diaphragmatically. As the intercostal muscles develop and the child grows, the chest moves down, the ribs take an oblique position - the child's breathing becomes thoraco-abdominal with a predominance of the diaphragmatic. At the age of 3 to 7 years, chest breathing predominates. And at the age of 7-8 years, gender differences in the type of breathing are revealed. In boys, the abdominal type predominates, and in girls, the thoracic type predominates. Sexual differentiation ends by the age of 14-17 years. The types of breathing in boys and girls can change depending on sports and work activity.

Age-related features of the structure of the chest and muscles determine the features of the depth and frequency of breathing in childhood. In a calm state, an adult makes 16-20 breathing movements per minute, 500 ml is inhaled per breath. air. The volume of air characterizes the depth of breathing.

The newborn's breathing is rapid and shallow. In children of the first year of life, the respiratory rate is 50-60 respiratory movements per minute, 1-2 years 30-40 respiratory movements per minute, 2-4 years 25-35 respiratory movements per minute, 4-6 years 23-26 respiratory movements per minute. In school-age children, there is a further decrease in the breathing rate, 18-20 respiratory movements per minute. The high frequency of respiratory movements in a child ensures high ventilation of the lungs. The volume of exhaled air in a child at 1 month of life is 30 ml, at 1 year - 70 ml, at 6 years - 156 ml, at 10 years - 240 ml, at 14 years - 300 ml. Minute breathing volume - This is the amount of air that a person exhales in 1 minute; the more often the breath, the higher the minute volume.

An important characteristic of the functioning of the respiratory system is the vital capacity of the lungs (VC) - the largest amount of air that a person can exhale after a deep breath. Vital capacity changes with age, depends on body length, degree of chest development and respiratory muscles, floor. At calm breathing In one breath, about 500 cm3 of air enters the lungs - respiratory air. With maximum inhalation after a quiet exhalation, an average of 1500 cm3 of air enters the lungs than with a quiet inhalation - an additional volume. At maximum exhalation after a normal inhalation, 1500 cm3 of air can come out of the lungs more than during a normal exhalation - the reserve volume. All these three types of volume - respiratory, additional, reserve - together make up vital capacity: 500 cm3 +1500 cm3 +1500 cm3 = 3500 cm3. After exhalation, even the deepest, about 100 cm3 of air remains in the lungs - residual air, it remains even in the lungs of a corpse, a breathing child or an adult. Air enters the lungs with the first breath after birth. Vital vital capacity is determined using a special device - a spirometer. Typically, vital capacity is higher in men than in women. Trained people have a higher vital capacity than untrained people. A child's vital capacity can be determined with his conscious participation only after 4-5 years.

Regulation of breathing is carried out by the central nervous system, special areas of which determine automatic breathing - alternation of inhalation and exhalation and voluntary breathing, providing adaptive changes in the respiratory system that correspond to the situation and type of activity. The activity of the respiratory center is regulated reflexively, by impulses coming from various receptors and humorally.

The breathing center is a group nerve cells, which are located in the medulla oblongata, its destruction leads to respiratory arrest. In the respiratory center, two sections are distinguished: the inhalation section and the exhalation section, the functions of which are interconnected. When the inhalation department is excited, the exhalation department is inhibited and vice versa.

Special clusters of nerve cells in the pons and diencephalon. In the spinal cord there is a group of cells, the processes of which go into the structure spinal nerves to the respiratory muscles. In the respiratory center, excitation alternates with inhibition. When you inhale, the lungs expand, their walls stretch, which irritates the endings vagus nerve. Excitation is transmitted to the respiratory center and inhibits its activity. The muscles stop receiving stimulation from the respiratory center and relax, the chest drops, its volume decreases, and exhalation occurs. When relaxed, the centripetal fibers of the vagus nerve cease to be excited, and the respiratory center does not receive inhibitory impulses; it is excited again - the next inhalation occurs. In this way, self-regulation occurs: inhalation causes exhalation, and exhalation causes inhalation.

The activity of the respiratory center is also regulated humorally, changing depending on chemical composition blood. The reason for changes in the activity of the respiratory center is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. It is a specific respiratory stimulant: an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood leads to stimulation of the respiratory center - breathing becomes frequent and deep. This continues until the level of carbon dioxide in the blood decreases to normal. The respiratory center responds to a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood by decreasing excitability until it completely stops its activity for some time. Leading physiological mechanism affecting the respiratory center is the reflex, followed by the humoral. Breathing is subordinated to the cerebral cortex, as evidenced by the fact of voluntary holding of breath or a change in the frequency and depth of breathing, increased breathing when emotional states person.

Excitation of the respiratory center can also cause a decrease in oxygen levels in the blood. Defensive acts such as coughing and sneezing are also associated with breathing; they are carried out reflexively. A cough occurs in response to irritation of the mucous membrane of the larynx, pharynx or bronchi. And sneezing is due to irritation of the nasal mucosa.

Gas exchange increases sharply during physical activity, since during work the metabolism in the muscles increases, which means oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide release.

Stopping breathing that occurs as a result of a decrease in carbon dioxide in the blood is called apnea.

Disruption of the breathing rhythm - shortness of breath and increased breathing - occurs due to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood - dyspnea.

When climbing to a high altitude, mountain sickness may develop - the pulse and breathing become more frequent, headache, weakness, etc. The reason is oxygen starvation. Caisson sickness - when working underwater or in caissons, where there is increased atmospheric pressure. One type of respiratory regulation disorder is Chain-Stokes breathing, which occurs when the excitability of the respiratory center decreases.

Asphyxia or suffocation occurs when the supply of oxygen is stopped, or when the tissues are unable to use oxygen. If breathing stops - artificial respiration.

Features of breathing regulation in childhood. By the time a child is born, his respiratory center is able to ensure a rhythmic change in the phases of the respiratory cycle (inhalation and exhalation), but not as perfectly as in older children. This is due to the fact that at the time of birth the functional formation of the respiratory center has not yet completed. This is evidenced by the great variability in the frequency, depth, and rhythm of breathing in young children. The excitability of the respiratory center in newborns and infants is low.

The formation of the functional activity of the respiratory center occurs with age. By the age of 11, the ability to adapt breathing to different conditions life activity. It should be noted that during puberty, temporary disturbances in the regulation of breathing occur, and the body of adolescents is less resistant to oxygen deficiency than the body of an adult.

As the cerebral cortex matures, the ability to voluntarily change breathing improves - to suppress respiratory movements or produce maximum ventilation of the lungs. Children cannot significantly change the depth of breathing during physical activity, but rather increase their breathing speed. Breathing becomes even more frequent and shallow. This results in lower ventilation efficiency, especially in young children. breathing gymnastics health humoral

Teaching children to breathe correctly when walking, running and other activities is one of the tasks of the educator. One of the conditions for proper breathing is taking care of the development of the chest. For this, correct body position is important. Children should be taught to walk and stand with a straight posture, as this helps expand the chest, facilitates the functioning of the lungs and ensures deeper breathing. At bent position body, less air enters the body.

Education in children of correct breathing through the nose in a state of relative rest, during work and during physical exercises is given great attention in the process of physical education. Breathing exercises, swimming, rowing, skating, and skiing especially help improve breathing.

Breathing exercises have great health benefits. With calm and deep breath Intrathoracic pressure decreases as the diaphragm moves downward. The flow of venous blood to the right atrium increases, which facilitates the work of the heart. The diaphragm, which descends during inhalation, massages the liver and upper organs abdominal cavity, helps remove metabolic products from them, and from the liver - venous stagnation of blood and bile.

During deep exhalation, the diaphragm rises, which increases the outflow of venous blood from the lower extremities, pelvis and abdomen. As a result, blood circulation is facilitated. At the same time, with a deep exhalation, a light massage of the heart occurs and its blood supply improves.

In breathing exercises there are three main types of breathing, called according to the form of execution - chest, abdominal and full breathing. Full breathing is considered the most beneficial for health. There are various breathing exercises.

What goals do we pursue when conducting breathing exercises with children? What is the significance of this gymnastics in children's health?

Human health, physical and mental activity largely depend on breathing. Respiratory function extremely important for normal life organism, since the increased metabolism of a growing organism is associated with increased gas exchange. However, the child's respiratory system has not reached full development. Children's breathing is shallow and rapid. Children should be taught to breathe correctly, deeply and evenly, and not to hold their breath during muscular work. We need to remind children to breathe through their nose. This is very important, since the atmospheric air in the nasal passages is cleaned, warmed and moistened. When breathing through the nose, much more air enters the child's lungs than when breathing through the mouth. For example, breathing rate and breathing alternately through the right and left nostril affects brain function. The fitness of the respiratory muscles determines a person’s physical performance and endurance: as soon as an untrained person runs a few tens of meters, he begins to breathe faster and feel shortness of breath due to the poor development of the respiratory muscles. Breathing exercises help to effectively solve the problem of strengthening the respiratory muscles of children in order to increase their resistance to colds and other diseases, as well as endurance during physical activity.

From all of the above, we can conclude what a huge role it plays breathing exercises in the hardening and healing of children and how important it is to approach this task thoughtfully and responsibly.