Stages of development. Main problems and schools of ancient philosophy

1. The main question is the question of the essence of space, nature as an integral, unified world, universe. The cosmos was presented as a finite living being, harmoniously calculated, hierarchically arranged, spiritualized. The cosmos is arranged according to the principle of unity and forms a structure where everything is in everything, where each element serves as a representation and reflection of the whole and restores this whole in itself in its entirety, where each part is also everything, not mixed and inseparable from the whole. Every person, thing, event has its own meaning. The harmony of the cosmos manifests itself at all levels of the hierarchy, so that man is a microcosm.

2. The problem of being and becoming is based on the empirically observed difference between the stable and the changeable. That which is always unchangeable is being, existing, and that which is changeable is becoming. Being absolutely exists, i.e. exists before all its possible divisions; it is whole, simple and united. It is complete, unchangeable, has no other existence as its beginning, is necessary, i.e. cannot but be, already become and identical.

3. Understanding of space and existence is based on expediency. If something happens, then there must be a reason that gives rise to it - a goal. “The beginning of a thing,” says Aristotle, “is the reason for which it exists. And becoming is for the sake of a goal.” If there is a goal, there is also a meaning - “for what”. For many ancient thinkers, what everything strives for is the Good as the first and last target cause of existence.

4. Putting unity above plurality, ancient philosophers identified unity and integrity. The whole was understood primarily as the indivisible. For representatives of the Milesian school these are various types of the first principle (water, air, apeiron), for Heraclitus - fire, for atomists - an atom. For Plato and Aristotle these are eidos, forms, ideal existential essences.

5. Ancient philosophers were mainly epistemological optimists, considering knowledge of the world possible. They considered reason to be the main means of knowledge. They are characterized by recognition in accordance with the principle of hierarchy and hierarchically divided structure of cognitive abilities, which depend on the parts of the human soul.

6. The problem of man is to clarify the essence of man, his connection with the cosmos, his moral predestination, rationality and self-worth.

7. The problem of soul and body as a type of problem of the relationship between the material and the ideal. The soul is understood either as independent of the material and predetermined by supernatural forces, immortal (Plato), or as a type of material (the fiery atoms of Democritus). Universal animation (hylozoism) is recognized by Democritus and Aristotle.

8. Ethical problems in which a person appears as a being who has base passions and desires and at the same time is virtuous, endowed with higher virtues. Within the framework of antiquity, he identifies several ethical directions:

- eudaimonism– harmony between virtue and the pursuit of happiness (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle),

- hedonism– virtue is intertwined with pleasure, vice with suffering (Democritus, Epicurus),

- asceticism– self-restraint as a means of achieving higher moral qualities (cynics, stoics).

9. Ethical problems are closely intertwined with political problems. The individual and the citizen are considered identical, therefore the problems of the state are ethical problems and vice versa.

10. The problem of the genesis, nature and systematization of scientific knowledge, an attempt to identify sections of philosophical knowledge (Aristotle).

11. A certain classification of sciences, based on human cognitive abilities or determined by the degree of significance of the object of study.

12. Developing ways to achieve truth in a dispute, i.e. dialectics as a method of thinking (Socrates, Zeno of Elea).

13. The discovery and subsequent development of a kind of objective dialectic, stating the fluidity, variability, and inconsistency of the material world (Milesian school, Heraclitus).

14. The problem of beauty, reflected in art, is recognized as either illusory (a copy of a copy, according to Plato, cannot be beautiful), or capable of freeing a person from the power of feelings and giving space to the rational principle in a person (catharsis in Aristotle).

Thales - “arche (first cause)” - water, wet beginning. Heraclitus - arche, fire, Pythogareans - arche number, atomists - arche, atom. Properties of atoms are indivisibility, immutability, impenetrability, constancy of mass. Parmenides – arche-being. Functions: ideological (any philosophical system gives an ideal of the world or its fragments, philosophical science is not about what is, but about what should be), methodological (a path, a method of activity to achieve results), formal-logical method, laws of logic Aristotle 1 law of logic - the law of identity is impossible change in the process of reasoning the meaning of the concepts used, 2nd law of contradiction, “A” and not “A” cannot be true at the same time, 3rd law of the excluded third of 2 contradictory judgments 1-true, 2-false, 3-no, 4th law of sufficient reason - Leibniz (every judgment must be justified), hermeneutic art of interpreting any text, dialectical (universal interconnection and interdependence - we take an object in development and show possible ways of development of the object.)

The main problems of ancient philosophy were:

The problem of being and non-being, matter and its forms. Ideas were put forward about the fundamental opposition between form and “matter”, about the main elements, the elements of the cosmos; identity and opposition of being and non-being; the structure of being; the fluidity of existence and its inconsistency. The main problem here is how did space come into being? What is its structure? (Thales, Anaximenes, Zeno, Anaximander, Democritus);

The problem of a person, his knowledge, his relationships with other people. What is the essence of human morality? Are there moral norms independent of circumstances? What is politics and the state in relation to man? How do rational and irrational relate in human consciousness? Is there absolute truth and is it achievable by the human mind? These questions were given different, often contradictory, answers. (Socrates, Epicurus);

The problem of human will and freedom. The ideas of the insignificance of man before the forces of nature and social cataclysms and, at the same time, his power and the strength of his spirit were put forward in the pursuit of freedom, noble thought, and knowledge, in which they saw the happiness of man (Aurelius, Epicurus);

The problem of the relationship between man and God, the divine will. The ideas of constructive cosmos and being, the structure of the matter of the soul, society as mutually conditioning each other were put forward;

The problem of synthesis of the sensual and supersensible; the problem of finding a rational method of understanding the world, and ideas and the world of things. (Plato, Aristotle and their followers).

Characteristic features of ancient philosophy.

1. Ancient philosophy arises and develops to a large extent as a result of direct sensory contemplation of the world.

2. The syncretism of ancient philosophy is the initial indivisibility of knowledge. It included all the diversity of elements of emerging knowledge.

3. Ancient philosophy arose as a doctrine of nature, the cosmos (naturalistic philosophy). Later, from the middle of the 5th century (Socrates), the doctrine of man arose from this moment on two closely related lines: 1. Comprehension of nature, 2. Comprehension of man.

4. In ancient philosophy, a special approach to understanding nature and man was formed (worldview). Cosmocentrism: the essence is that the initial starting point in the development of philosophical problems was the definition of an understanding of the cosmos of nature as a single whole with some spiritual principle (soul, world mind). In accordance with the understanding of the cosmos, human nature is also understood. Man is a microcosm; in accordance with this, the relationship between man and the surrounding world is understood (harmony of man, the world, human mind, thinking).

Sophists and Socrates.

The Sophists were originally teachers of rhetoric, teachers of wisdom. The main feature is the first school to charge tuition fees, the first professional philosophers. There was an opportunity to make a career. The human problem comes to the fore. Main features: they took tuition fees, were accused of vagrancy (they carried knowledge about customs and traditions from one city to another, carriers of a pan-Hellenistic origin), the first Greek enlighteners, for the first time carried systematized knowledge, the movement of the sophists was not homogeneous

1. masters of the older generation who preserved the moral context.

2. Sophists-Helenists (disputants), the main thing for them is to win the argument at any cost.

3. sophists-politicians. Founder Protogor “man is the measure of all things, where measure is the norm of judgment, everything is relative, there are no absolute truths and moral values, all truths are relative.” Relativism is a philosophical direction that absolutizes the moment of relativity in the process of understanding the world. Any ism is always an exaggeration, an absolutization of some aspect of knowledge.

“Yes, any statements are useful, but you can single out the most useful ones.” A sage is one who distinguishes progmatism - a philosophical direction that absolutizes the moment of usefulness in the process of understanding the world.

Gorgias. The difficulty of expressing the results of our knowledge in language. “If the world is knowable, then it doesn’t matter.”

Creator of the third way methodology. to pass in knowledge between extreme knowledge. The words of our language are in no way connected with our existence. Technique of sophistry: one of the main techniques is violation of the laws of identity.

Philosophy of Socrates. He lived in the era of the decline of Athenian democracy, morality became consumerist. “The Gadfly Who Will Flock” The first dissident in the history of European civilization. What is the essence of man. This is his soul, in the term soul he put his mind, mentality.... A new interpretation of virtue, now virtue was acquired, the main thing was knowledge, he rejected wealth, power, fame, he was restrained about life and health, spiritual values were the main ones,

A new generation of virtue and values. Virtue is an acquired quality, the main virtue is the pursuit of knowledge and knowledge of the world. Highest values: spiritual, external: wealth, strength, power. Ethical rationalism of Socrates, man does evil out of ignorance. Antiquity did not know the concept of free will

1. Refutation a) feigning ignorance b) irony of Socrates

Plato and Aristotle

Plato. Characterizes being as eternal and unchangeable, cognizable only by reason and inaccessible to sensory perception... being is presented as multiple, considers it as an ideal, incorporeal formation-idea. He thinks of matter as the beginning of something else, changeable, fluid, impermanent. It is deprived of certainty and therefore unknowable. Formless matter can take on any form, it is indefinite, it is, as it were, a possibility and not a reality, it identifies with space. In a person, he distinguishes between the soul and the corruptible body, the soul, according to Plato, is one and indivisible, the body is divisible, since it consists of matter. The essence of the soul in its unity, self-movement, consists of two parts, the higher - rational, and the lower - sensual., supporter of the theory of transmigration of souls. Cognition as remembering. Divides people into three different types: rational, emotional and sensual. 1. Sages or philosophers (rulers in the state), 2 wars, guards (take care of the security of the state), 3 physical labor (peasants, artisans). Nothing beyond measure. A person lives for the sake of the state. Contrasting materialistic atomism with the idealistic understanding of “being is an incorporeal idea, everything that has parts is changeable” The principle of doubling the world. In ontology, epistemology, anthropology. Besides things, there must be ideas of things. How are these 2 worlds connected?

Ideas are in things

Ideas imitate things

Ideas are involved in things

Creates a theory of knowledge as a theory of “remembering”. Dialectics is the art of asking questions correctly and getting the right answers - the logical theory of supersensible knowledge. Teaching of the soul. What is primary, separate or general? The general is primary, the specific is secondary.

Aristotle 1. Aristotle’s criticism of Plato’s ideas “the idea of a thing in the thing itself” called being the individual-indivisible. An essence is an individual that has independence, in contrast to its states and relationships, which are changeable and depend on time, place, etc. Syllogistics is the first system of logic, essence is more primary than relationships, essence is the subject of science. Matter must be limited to forms, matter is a bodily composition, form-soul, ensures unity and integrity. Matter is the passive principle, form is the active principle of life. Matter is infinitely divisible, it is devoid of any unity and certainty, the form is identical with the essence of the thing. Higher pure forms and lower essences consisting of matter. The highest essence, a form devoid of matter, is a perpetual motion machine. Nature is the living connection of all individual substances

2.the doctrine of 4 principles noun. M.o.

Formal (what is a thing = an idea)

Material

Driving Reason

3. 3 types of soul

Plant functions of nutrition, growth, reproduction, common to all living beings

Animal increase in sensation, desire for the pleasant and avoidance of the unpleasant

Reasonable higher faculty of reasoning and thinking

Philosophy of the Hellenistic era

- fall of egypt

- Fall of Greece 338 BC A military dictatorship is established over a large area. The question of freedom and happiness in a totalitarian society.

Kirinaiki - happiness in pleasure. Thinker Theodore. The sage has access to: theft, fornication, sacrilege. Theodore is a superman.

Epicurus placed the gods between the worlds; they do not interfere in social life. Freethinking. Mentally limits him from life, life and death never meet, a sage should not strive for power, a man of private life

The Cynics, the first representatives of the counterculture, hoped to gain internal freedom from

Asceticism, reliance on common sense and practical reason (Diogenes)

There is no need to learn anything, “it’s impossible to find a virtuous person during the day.”

A sage should be:

Women are common, do not ask anything from the gods, cosmopolitan. Freedom is a conscious necessity. Apathy is not depression, the highest direction, from strength and not from weakness.

Related information.

The main problems of ancient philosophy were:

The problem of being and non-being, matter and its forms. Ideas were put forward about the fundamental opposition between form and “matter”, about the main elements, the elements of the cosmos; identity and opposition of being and non-being; the structure of being; the fluidity of existence and its inconsistency. The main problem here is how did space come into being? What is its structure? (Thales, Anaximenes, Zeno, Anaximander, Democritus);

The problem of a person, his knowledge, his relationships with other people. What is the essence of human morality? Are there moral norms independent of circumstances? What is politics and the state in relation to man? How do rational and irrational relate in human consciousness? Is there absolute truth and is it achievable by the human mind? These questions were given different, often contradictory, answers. (Socrates, Epicurus...);

The problem of human will and freedom. Ideas were put forward about the insignificance of man before the forces of nature and social cataclysms and, at the same time, his power and the strength of his spirit in the pursuit of freedom, noble thought, and knowledge, in which they saw the happiness of man (Aurelius, Epicurus...);

The problem of the relationship between man and God, the divine will. The ideas of a constructive cosmos and being, the structure of the matter of the soul, and society were put forward as mutually conditioning each other.

The problem of synthesis of the sensual and supersensible; the problem of finding a rational method of understanding the world of ideas and the world of things.(Plato, Aristotle and their followers...).

Characteristic features of ancient philosophy.

Ancient philosophy arises and develops to a large extent as a result of direct sensory contemplation peace. It was on the basis of direct sensory data that the argumentation of the world was built. Connected with this is a certain naivety of the ancient Greek idea of the world.

The syncretism of ancient philosophy is the original indivisibility of knowledge. It included all the diversity of elements of emerging knowledge (geometric, aesthetic, music, crafts). This is largely explained by the fact that ancient Greek thinkers were diversified and engaged in various cognitive activities.

Ancient philosophy arose as a doctrine of nature and space (naturalistic philosophy). Later, from the middle of the 5th century (Socrates), the doctrine of man arose from this moment on two closely related lines: 1. Comprehension of nature, 2. Comprehension of man.

In ancient philosophy, a special approach to understanding nature and man was formed (worldview). Cosmocentrism, the essence is that the initial starting point in the development of philosophical problems was the definition of an understanding of the cosmos of nature as a single commensurate whole with some spiritual principle (soul, world mind). The law of space development as a source of development. Understanding the cosmos is at the center of understanding the world.

In accordance with the understanding of the cosmos, human nature is also understood. Man is a microcosm; in accordance with this, the relationship between man and the surrounding world is understood (harmony of man, the world, human mind, thinking).

Mental, cognitive activity associated with the comprehension of both the cosmos and man, aimed at achieving the internal harmony of man, social harmony, harmony between man and the cosmos, was recognized as an important type of human activity.

Connected with this is such a characteristic feature of philosophy and ancient culture as cognitive and ethical rationalism: Good is the result of knowledge, Evil is the result of non-knowledge.

That is why the ideal of a person in ancient philosophy is a sage who contemplates the world around him, reflects on the world around him.

One of the central problems of ancient philosophy was the problem of existence: what is everything that exists for? where did it come from? What is the reason for being? Why is there being and not nothing? etc. In everyday language, the words “to be”, “to exist”, “is present” are perceived as synonyms. But in philosophy they have special meanings that have nothing in common with everyday use. The term “being” turns into the main problem of ontology, that section of philosophy where we are talking about the truly existing, unchangeable and unified, guaranteeing the world and man a sustainable existence. Being as a philosophical category means a reality that extends beyond human experience, and therefore does not depend on man with his consciousness, or on humanity.

Addressing questions of existence begins with the question of the meaning of life. But for the ancient Greek, his life was still inextricably linked with nature, with the cosmos, so philosophy begins precisely with the questions where did the world come from and what does it consist of? The thoughts of the Milesian philosophers: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes are devoted to these questions. In addition, Thales already had the idea of the existence of laws common to all things and the world as a whole. This idea was first expressed and it was Greek. As Heraclitus of Ephesus said later, wisdom consists in grasping the basic formula common to all objects. We must follow this as a city follows its laws, and even more strictly, since the general formula is universal, even if the laws of different cities are different.

Among the Milesians, for the first time, the idea appears that everything is subject to continuous change. Heraclitus in every possible way emphasizes being in change, constancy in change, identity in change, eternity in the transitory. The source of movement and change is struggle. Everything is made up of opposites. They can transform into each other (cold heats up, hot cools down); one opposite reveals the value of the other (for example, illness makes health sweet). The harmony of the world consists of opposites, between which there is a struggle.

The Greeks have the idea why things remain the same despite such totality of change. This is the principle of order and measure. By maintaining the correct proportions, constant change keeps things as they are, both for humans and for the world as a whole. The basic idea about measures came from Pythagoras. The idea of measure, so characteristic of the ancient worldview, is generalized by Heraclitus in the concept of logos. Literally “logos” is the word. But this is not any word, but only a reasonable one.

In the 5th-4th century BC. Parmenides introduced the problem of being into philosophy to solve one very real life problem - the loss of faith in the former gods and at the same time the loss of support in life. Despair arose in the depths of human consciousness; it was necessary to search for new guarantors of human existence.

Parmenides proposed replacing the power of the gods with the power of thought. In philosophy, such a thought is called pure, i.e. one whose content does not depend on the empirical, sensory experience of people. Parmenides argued that behind objective-sensory things there is something that can play the role of a guarantor of the existence of this world: God, Logos, Absolute Idea. Parmenides discovered the power of Absolute thought, which will provide stability and order to the world: everything necessarily obeys this thought. The course of things established in the universe cannot change suddenly, by chance: day will always come to replace night, people will not die out suddenly, no one knows why. Those. To describe this situation, Parmenides used the term “being”, taking it from the language of the Greeks and giving it a different context. Being in his understanding is what exists behind the world of sensory things, what is unified and unchangeable, which contains the fullness of perfections, among which the main ones are truth, goodness, goodness.

Later, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, a student of Socrates, will demonstrate that reality and being are not homogeneous, that in addition to the sensory cosmos there is an intelligible reality, superior to the sensory, physical. Pythagoras was the first to insist that only the mental is real. Parmenides agreed with him, denying the movement. Plato developed and deepened this idea of the ancient Greek genius.

Plato believed that there are eternal values of existence - there is justice, goodness and virtue, not subject to human disagreement. These first principles are completely comprehensible to the human mind.

How does Plato prove his points? There is a moving, changeable world in which we live. We know it through sensations, ideas, perceptions that do not give us true knowledge. But there is another world - eternal, uncreated and indestructible - the world of pure forms of things, ideas of things, the essence of things, their causes. This world is designated by the concept of being, i.e. has for Plato the meaning of true being. You can understand the world of ideas not through sensations, but through concepts. Those. the mind should not rely on deceptive appearances, but on concepts that are verified by logic. From these concepts, according to the rules of logic, other concepts are derived, and as a result we can arrive at the truth.

The truth is that the intelligible world of ideas, the world of essences, determines our changeable world - the world of sensory things. For example, there is a beautiful horse, a beautiful woman, a beautiful cup, and then there is beauty in itself. Beauty as a reason, a model, an idea of beautiful things. It is this beauty in itself, as well as virtue in itself, justice in itself, that we cognize with our minds using the inductive-deductive way of constructing concepts. This means we can understand the essence of existence, justify the rules of government, understand what the meaning of our life is and what its main values are.

Plato and Aristotle fixed the problems of the genesis and nature of knowledge, logical and methodological, from the point of view of rational search. Which road should you follow to reach the truth? What is the true contribution of the senses, and what comes from the mind? What are the logical forms with the help of which a person judges, thinks, reasons?

The method of knowledge chosen by Aristotle can be characterized as follows: from the obvious and obvious to what becomes obvious through something else. The way to do this is logical reasoning. In the sphere of logic, the subjectivity of human thinking is overcome and a person is able to operate with generally valid, universal concepts. Dependence on sensory perception disappears. In the sphere of logic, an object seems to think of itself through human thinking. Based on this, it becomes possible to comprehend things as they are.

Thus, we see the idea, characteristic of ancient Greek thought, of the existence of a transcendental world, the most perfect and beautiful, harmoniously combining Good, Good, and Truth. This world is identified with true existence, which is only comprehensible in thought.

The problem of existence posed in antiquity predetermined the fate of the Western world in the following senses.

Firstly, if being is thought and is understandable only in thought, then European culture was faced with the task of developing the ability of thinking to work in a space where there are no sensory images and ideas.

Secondly, if genuine existence exists, then the earthly being is inauthentic and needs to be reorganized and improved. The task of defeating the untruth of earthly existence has become part of the flesh and blood of the European worldview.

The main problems of ancient philosophy were:

The problem of being and non-being, matter and its forms. Ideas were put forward about the fundamental opposition of form and “matter”, about the main elements, elements of the cosmos; identity and opposition of being and non-being; the structure of being; the fluidity of existence and its inconsistency. The main problem here is how did space come into being? What is its structure? (Thales, Anaximenes, Zeno, Anaximander, Democritus);

The problem of human will and freedom. Ideas were put forward about the insignificance of man before the forces of nature and social cataclysms and, at the same time, his power and the strength of his spirit in the pursuit of freedom, noble thought, and knowledge, in which they saw the happiness of man (Aurelius, Epicurus...);

The problem of the relationship between man and God, the divine will. The ideas of a constructive cosmos and being, the structure of the matter of the soul, and society were put forward as mutually conditioning each other.

The problem of synthesis of the sensual and supersensible; the problem of finding a rational method of understanding the world of ideas and the world of things. (Plato, Aristotle and their followers...).

Main features of Renaissance philosophy

The ideas of Renaissance philosophy were based on principles such as:

Anthropocentrism of philosophical and scientific search. Man is the center of the universe, its main value and driving force.

Particular attention to natural and exact sciences. Only through learning and development can one understand the structure of the world and know its very essence.

Natural philosophy. Nature should be studied as a whole. All objects in the world are one, all processes are interconnected. It is possible to recognize them in all their diversity of forms and states only through generalization and at the same time through a deductive approach from the larger to the specific.

Pantheism is the identification of God with nature. The main goal of this idea was to reconcile science with the church. It is known that Catholics zealously pursued any scientific thought. The development of pantheism gave impetus to such progressive directions as astronomy, chemistry (as opposed to pseudoscientific alchemy and the search for the philosopher's stone), physics, medicine (in-depth study of the structure of man, his organs, tissues).

Karl Marx

Historical materialism- a direction in the philosophy of history, developed by K. Marx and F. Engels as a unity of the theory of the development of society and the methodology of its knowledge. The basis of the materialist understanding of history, formulated by Marxism, is the recognition of factors in the level of development of productive forces and, in particular, material production as leading in relation to the processes of development and change in social consciousness.

Historical materialism views society as a system that develops evolutionarily due to the gradual development of productive forces, and revolutionaryly through social revolutions caused by the struggle of antagonistic classes to establish qualitatively new relations of production. He argues that the existence of society (the basis) shapes its consciousness (the superstructure), and not vice versa. The social structure of society is a combination of base and superstructure.

Basis (ancient Greek βασις - basis) - the totality of the method of production of material goods and class structures, which constitutes the economic basis of society. The method of production is a combination of productive forces (the working mass of people and the means of production that they use) and production relations (social relations, relations to property that inevitably arise in connection with production). The basis is the existence of society. The basis is the basis and root cause of all processes occurring in society. According to their role in production, in almost all formations two “main” opposite (antagonistic) classes are distinguished - worker-producers (exploited class) and owners of the means of production (exploiting class).

Superstructure (German Überbau; English Superstructure) - a set of political, legal, religious institutions of society, as well as moral, aesthetic, philosophical views in it, serving the ruling (exploiting) class in a class society (slave owner, landowner, capitalist (old name . Bourgeoisie)) for control (dictatorship of slave owners, dictatorship of landowners, dictatorship of the bourgeoisie (capitalists)) over the exploited class (slave, serf, working class (old name: Proletariat)) with the help of ideology (later the concept of false consciousness was introduced) beneficial to itself. the ruling class to maintain society in the position in which it finds itself and maintain its power. The superstructure is the consciousness of society. The superstructure is secondary, dependent on the base, but has relative independence and can, in its development, either correspond to the base, or advance or lag behind it, thus stimulating or inhibiting the development of society.

Dialectical materialism- a philosophical direction created in the 19th century by K. Marx on the basis of the materialistically interpreted idealistic dialectics of G. W. F. Hegel and the philosophical materialism of L. A. Feuerbach. Philosophical basis of Marxism.

Dialectical materialism comes from a materialistic view of the world around us and a dialectical recognition of the universal interconnection of objects and phenomena. The movement and development of the material world is considered as a result of internal contradictions operating within it. Consciousness is considered a property of a highly organized, social form of movement of matter, a reflection of the objective world in the brain.

Dialectical materialism, based on the principle of materialistic monism, views the world as moving matter, which, as an objective reality, is uncreated, eternal and infinite. It is characterized by such universal forms of existence as movement, space and time. Movement is a universal way of existence of matter. Matter does not exist without motion, and motion cannot exist without matter.

Consciousness is considered a property of a highly organized, social form of movement of matter, a reflection of the objective world in the brain.

Empirio-criticism(ancient Greek ἐμπειρία - experience and criticism, “criticism of experience” or “criticism from the standpoint of experience”; also known as “Second Positivism”) - a philosophical movement, the founder of which is Richard Avenarius: the starting point of Avenarius’s theory of knowledge is not thinking or subject, not matter or object, but pure experience in the form in which it is directly cognized by people.

Empirio-criticism accepts direct data obtained by an individual through experience as something that is recognized as indisputable by all humanity, constitutes a “natural” concept of the world and is expressed in the following postulate: “Every human individual initially finds in relation to himself the environment with many different components, other human individuals with a variety of statements and what is expressed in some way depending on the environment.” Based only on this postulate, empirio-criticism methodically examines the relationship between a given individual, the environment and other individuals (and their “statements”).

Agnosticism(from ancient Greek ἄγνωστος - unknowable, unknown, Thomas Huxley) - terminology that exists in philosophy, theory of knowledge and theology, which considers it fundamentally impossible to know objective reality only through subjective experience, and impossible to know any ultimate and absolute foundations of reality. The possibility of proving or refuting ideas and statements based entirely on subjective premises is also denied. Sometimes agnosticism is defined as a philosophical doctrine that asserts the fundamental unknowability of the world.

Agnosticism arose at the end of the 19th century as an antithesis to the ideas of metaphysical philosophy, which was actively engaged in the study of the world through the subjective understanding of metaphysical ideas, often without any objective manifestation or confirmation.

In addition to philosophical agnosticism, there is theological and scientific agnosticism. In theology, agnostics separate the cultural and ethical component of faith and religion, considering it a kind of secular scale of moral behavior in society, from the mystical (questions of the existence of gods, demons, the afterlife, religious rituals) and do not attach significant importance to the latter. Scientific agnosticism exists as a principle in the theory of knowledge, suggesting that since the experience gained in the process of cognition is inevitably distorted by the consciousness of the subject, the subject is fundamentally unable to comprehend an accurate and complete picture of the world. This principle does not deny knowledge, but only points to the fundamental inaccuracy of any knowledge and the impossibility of knowing the world completely.

Anthropocentrism(from Greek άνθροπος - man and Latin centrum - center) - an unscientific idealistic view, according to which man is the center of the Universe and the goal of all events taking place in the world.

Anthropocentrism is one of the most consistent expressions of the point of view of teleology, that is, the attribution of extra-natural, external goals to the world. In ancient philosophy, anthropocentrism was formulated by Socrates; later this view was adhered to by representatives of patristics, scholasticism and some philosophers of modern times. American professor Lynn White identifies the Judeo-Christian tradition for the emergence of anthropocentrism, according to which everything was created for the person whom God chose to dominate the earth. Beginning with the Renaissance, man in philosophy ceases to be considered as involved in God. Events in science that affect man's place in the Universe include mainly Copernicus's heliocentric system of the world, which shifted the focus from man to the Sun, and Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory, which brought man down from the top of the chain of being.

Deduction(Latin deductio - deduction) - a method of thinking, the consequence of which is a logical conclusion, in which a particular conclusion is deduced from the general. A chain of inferences (reasonings), where links (statements) are interconnected by logical conclusions.

The beginning (premises) of deduction are axioms or simply hypotheses that have the nature of general statements (“general”), and the end is the consequences of the premises, theorems (“particular”). If the premises of a deduction are true, then its consequences are true. Deduction is the main means of proof. The opposite of induction.

An example of the simplest deductive reasoning:

All people are mortal.

Socrates is a man.

Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Dialectics(ancient Greek διαλεκτική - the art of arguing, reasoning) - a method of argumentation in philosophy, as well as a form and method of reflexive theoretical thinking, which has as its subject the contradiction of the conceivable content of this thinking. In dialectical materialism there is a general theory of the development of the material world and at the same time the theory and logic of knowledge. The dialectical method is one of the central ones in the European and Indian philosophical traditions. The word “dialectic” itself comes from ancient Greek philosophy and became popular thanks to Plato’s Dialogues, in which two or more participants in the dialogue could hold different opinions, but sought to find the truth through the exchange of their opinions. Starting with Hegel, dialectics is opposed to metaphysics - a way of thinking that views things and phenomena as unchangeable and independent of each other.

In the history of philosophy, the most prominent thinkers defined dialectics as:

· the doctrine of eternal formation and variability of being (Heraclitus);

· the art of dialogue, understood as the comprehension of truth by asking leading questions and methodically answering them (Socrates);

· method of dismembering and linking concepts in order to comprehend the supersensible (ideal) essence of things (Plato);

· science concerning the general provisions of scientific research, or, what is the same thing, generalities (Aristotle);

· the doctrine of the combination of opposites (Nikolai Kuzansky, Giordano Bruno);

· a method of destroying the illusions of the human mind, which, striving for complete and absolute knowledge, inevitably becomes entangled in contradictions (Kant);

· a universal method of understanding contradictions as internal driving forces of the development of being, spirit and history (Hegel);

· doctrine and method taken as the basis for knowledge of reality and its revolutionary transformation (Marxism-Leninism).